Term
| ___: system by which sounds, symbols, and gestures are used for communication |
|
Definition
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|
Term
language process
- language comes into brain through ___ and ___ systems
- motor system: produces __, __
- processing between __ and __ systems; essence of ___ |
|
Definition
- visual; auditory
- speech; writing
- sensory; motor; language |
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Term
Broca's area
- region of ___
- articulate ___ |
|
Definition
- dominant left frontal lobe
- speech |
|
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Term
| ___: heavily involved in a particular task |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ___: anesthetize single hemisphere |
|
Definition
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Term
wernicke's area
- located at ___ between __ and ___
- lesions disrupt ___ |
|
Definition
- superior surface of temporal lobe; auditory cortex; angular gyrus
- normal speech |
|
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Term
the relationship between __ and the __ is currently being studied.
- correlate ___ with ___ |
|
Definition
language; brain
- functional deficits; lesions |
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Term
Broca's aphasia
- __, __ aphasia
- difficulty __ but ___
- ___ errors
- symptoms include: |
|
Definition
- motor, nonfluent
- speaking; understand spoken/heard language
- paraphasic
- pause to search for words; repeat overlearned things; difficulty repeating words |
|
|
Term
wernicke's aphasia
- difficulty ___ but __
- howard gardner case study showed strange mixture of __ and ___
-- correct __, incorrect ___
-- ___ difficult to assess
-- __ and __ were similar |
|
Definition
- with comprehension; speech fluent
- clarity; gibberish
-- sounds; sequence
-- comprehension
-- playing music; writing |
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Term
| note that Broca'a area lies next to the ___ that controls the ___ |
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Definition
| motor cortex region; mouth and lips |
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Term
| the ___ also projects directly to broca's area |
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Definition
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Term
| language comprehension is in the ___. split brain person sees world in the __, he will say he sees nothing, however, the __ can identify the object by touch. |
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Definition
| right hemisphere; left visual field; left hand |
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Term
wernicke's aphasia
- storing ___ that make up ___
- symptoms: mixture of __ and __; undisturbed by sound of ___
- characteristics: correct __ in ___; incorrect __ similar to ___ |
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Definition
- memories of sounds; words
- clarity and gibberish; sound of own or others speech
- words; incorrect sequence; word; correct word |
|
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Term
aphasia and the wernicke-geschwind model
- __
- __
- __
- __
- __
- __ |
|
Definition
- Broca'a area
- Wernicke's area
- Arcuate Fasciculus
- Angular gyrus
- problems with model |
|
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Term
conduction aphasia
- lesions of ___
- comparison with broca and wernicke aphasia: ___
- difficulty ___
- symptoms: ___, __ errors, cannot ___, __ words, __ words |
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Definition
- fibers composing arcuate fasciculus
- comprehension good; speech fluent
- repeating words
- repitition substitutes/omits words, paraphasic errors; cannot repeat function, nonsense words; polysyllabic words |
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Term
aphasia in bilinguals and the deaf
- aphasia in bilinguals: language affected depends on ___
- sign language aphasias ___ to speech aphasias
-- can be produced by __ in __
- in one case ___ were ___
-- indicates ___
- evidence suggests some __ to language in the brain |
|
Definition
- order, fluency, use of language
- analagous
-- lesions; slightly different locations
- verbel and sign language were recovered together
-- overlapping regions used for both
- universality |
|
|
Term
Roger Berry - split brain procedure
- sever __ making up the ___
- no major __
- with proper experiments, animals behaved ___ |
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Definition
- axons; corpus callosum
- deficits
- as if they had two brains |
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Term
language processing in split brain humans
- gazzaniga: __ to __
-- observation: ___ intitiated ___ |
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Definition
- stimuli; one hemisphere
- two hemispheres; conflicting behaviors |
|
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Term
__ hemisphere is language dominance
- right visual field, ___
- left visual field, ___
- image only in left visual field, object in left hand, ___
- split brain: unable to describe anything _____ |
|
Definition
left hemisphere
- repeated easily
- difficulty verbalizing
- unable to describe
- to left of visual fixation point |
|
|
Term
language functions of the right hemisphere
- functions: __ and understand __, __, and __
- baynes, gazzaniga, and colleagues: right hemisphere able to __, cannot __
- right hemisphere: __, __, ___
- left hemisphere: ___ |
|
Definition
- read; numbers; letters; short words (nonverbal response)
- write; speak
- drawing puzzles, sound nuances
- language |
|
|
Term
anatomical asymmetry and language
- __ longer and less __ than __
- geschwind and levitsky: ___ larger than right in ___ cases
- __ humans are right handed while in animals ___ |
|
Definition
- left lateral (sylvian) fissure; steep; right
- left planum temporal; 65%
- 90%; there is an equal number of right and left handers |
|
|
Term
language studies
- old methods: correlate ___ with postmortem analysis of ___
- recent techniques: study __ in brain of living humans: ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
- language deficits; brain damage
- language function; electrical brain stimulation; PET |
|
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Term
the effects of brain stimulation on language
- three main effects: |
|
Definition
| - vocalizations, speech arrest, speech difficulties similar to aphasia |
|
|
Term
the effects of brain stimulation on language
- motor cortex: ___
- broca's area: ___ after strong stimulation, ___ from weak stimulation
- poterior parietal lobe near sylvian fissure and temporal lobe: __ and __
- george ojemann - small parts of cortex: ____ |
|
Definition
- immediate speech arrest
- speech stopped; speech hesitation
- word confusion; speech arrest
- naming, reading, repeating of facial movements |
|
|
Term
imaging of language processing in the human brain
- __: record during 3 different language tasks
-- activated brain areas consistent with ___ and __ language areas
-- more activity than expected in ___ |
|
Definition
- fMRI
-- temporal; parietal
-- nondominant hemisphere |
|
|
Term
imaging of language processing in the human brain
- PET: compare ___ to __ vs. ___ |
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Definition
| - sensory responses; words; speech production |
|
|
Term
language acquisition
- mechanisms in infants is from __ and __
- complexity: __
- similar to adults |
|
Definition
- syllable emphasis and motherese
- foreign language
- dehaene - lambertz: 3 moth infant brain response to spoken words is ___ |
|
|
Term
language processing
- person repeats ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| initial activity in __, then activity in ___ corresponding to muscles that move ___ |
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Definition
| visual cortex; motor cortex; vocal apparatus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| language skills include __, __, ___, and ___ |
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Definition
| naming, articulation, grammar usage, and comprehension |
|
|
Term
| further ___ will reveal more about language systems organization |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| while the brain to body mass ratios, or the ___, are not great measures, they generally support other data on estimates of ___ |
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Definition
| encephalization quotient; intelligence |
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Term
| the region that has been identified as being critical for articulate speech has come to be called ___ |
|
Definition
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Term
| another area responsible for language located between the auditory cortex and the angular gyrus is ____ |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| the boundaries between broca's area and wernicke's area are ___, and they appear to be ____ |
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Definition
| not clearly defined; variable from one person to the next |
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Term
| a syndrome, also known as motor or nonfluent aphasia, because the person has difficulty speaking even though he or she can understand language heard or read. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the inability to find words is called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the hallmark of broca's aphasia is a telegraphic style of speech, in which mainly __ are used, and many ___ are left out |
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Definition
| content words; function words |
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Term
| the inability to construct grammatically correct sentences is called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| substituting incorrect sounds or words is called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| because the most obvious difficulty is in producing speech, broca's aphasia is thought of as a language disturbance toward the ___ |
|
Definition
| motor end of the language system |
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Term
| along with their far greater output speech compared with Broca's aphasics, wernicke's aphasics also make far more ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| wernicke aphasics appear undisturbed by the sound of their own speech and the speech of other, even though the probably ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| wernicke aphasics do not understand most ___ |
|
Definition
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Term
| wernicke's area may play a critical role in relating __ to their __. In other words, it is an area specialized for ___ |
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Definition
| incoming sounds; meaning; storing memories of the sounds that make up words |
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Term
| speech in wernicke aphasics suggests that broca's area and the system that governs speech production are ___ |
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Definition
| running without control over content |
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Term
| the ___ is a bundle of axons connecting wernicke's area to broca's area |
|
Definition
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Term
| when sounds of incoming speech reach the ear, the ___ processes the sounds, and the neural signals eventually reach the ___. The sounds are not understood as meaningful words until they are processed in ___. in order to repeat words, word based signals are passed to ___ from ___ via the ___. in ___, the words are converted to a code for the muscular movements required for speech. |
|
Definition
| auditory system; auditory cortex; wernicke's area; broca's area; wernicke's area; arcuate fasciculus; broca's area |
|
|
Term
when reading written text aloud
- the incoming info is processed by the __ through __ and higher-order ___.
- the visual signals are then passed to the ___
- in the cortex of the ___, it is assumed that a transformation occurs so that the ouput evokes the same pattern of activity in ___ as if the words were ___ rather than ___ |
|
Definition
- visual system; striate cortex; visual cortical areas
- angular gyrus
- angular gyrus; wernicke's area; spoken; written |
|
|
Term
| visual info can reach ___ from visual cortex without ___ |
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Definition
| broca's area; making a stop at the angular gyrus |
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|
Term
| the severity of broca's and wernicke's aphasias depends on how much ___ by the limits of broca's and wernicke's areas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| there is often significant recovery of language function after a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most aphasias involve both ___ |
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Definition
| comprehension and speech deficits |
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|
Term
| in reality, lesions that cause conduction aphasia usually involve damage to the ___ in addition to the ___ |
|
Definition
| parietal cortex; arcuate fasciculus |
|
|
Term
| aphasia that affect sign language doe not the ability to ___ |
|
Definition
| move the hands (i.e. the problem is not with motor control) |
|
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Term
| communication between the cerebral hemispheres is served by several bundles of axons known as ___, the largest of these is known as the ___ |
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Definition
| commissures; corpus callosum |
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Term
| if the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres may retain some communication via the ___ or ___ (if they aren't also severed), but most of the intercerebral communication is lost |
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Definition
| brain stem; smaller commissures |
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Term
| in split brain studies on humans, the right hemisphere sees obejects ___, and only the left hemisphere sees objects ___, as long as the eyest can't move to bring the image in focus |
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Definition
| to the left of the point of fixation; to the right of the point of fixation |
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Term
| the activity in ___ is believed to be related to the performance of the word-association task, whereas the activity in ___ may be related to attention. |
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Definition
| frontal and temporal cortex; cingulate gyrus |
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Term
| language processing in the adult human brain relies on carefully orchestrated interactions between a number of ___ and ___ |
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Definition
| cortical areas; subcortical structures |
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Term
| ___: denoting or relating to a part of the human mind that is aware of a person's self, environment, and mental activity and that to a certain extent determines his choices of action |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Dawkins' conceptualization
- as language grew exponentially, it developed mostly in the ___
-- over time this created ___
- which led to an increase in __ and therefore increased ___ |
|
Definition
- left hemisphere (broca's area)
-- hemispheric lateralization
- corpus collosum; consciousness |
|
|
Term
dawkins' conceptualization
- 100,000 years ago general intelligence combined with language, social intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, and technical intelligence, thus creating ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| symbolism; cognitive fluidity |
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|
Term
antonio damasio's theory of consciousness
- examines the phenomenon of consciousness using ___ and ___
- consciousness evolved with an organisms' ability to ___
- the 3 evolved processes leading to human consciousness: |
|
Definition
- neurological evidence; evoulutionary theory
- know itself
- 1. proto-self (created by the life urge)
2. core consciousness
3. extended consciousness |
|
|
Term
| The life urge is an inexplicable desire to ___. life urge is common from the ___ to the ___ |
|
Definition
| maintain homeostasis; single cell; human being |
|
|
Term
proto-self
- a coherent collection of ___ which map, moment by moment, the ___
-- ___
-- solely concerned with ___ |
|
Definition
- neural patterns; state of all physical organisms
-- non-conscious
-- homeostasis |
|
|
Term
core consciousness
- occurs when the brain's representation devices generate a ___ between the ___ and its ___.
- found in ___ |
|
Definition
- cause and effect relationship; organism (self); environment
- many mammals |
|
|
Term
extended consciousness
- the system of __ that are consciously accessible to the organism
- may be uniquely __
- ___ is where the action takes place
- awareness of one's __ on one's __ and __
- the ability to change ___ |
|
Definition
- memories ( both of the past and of the future)
- human
- working memory
- actions; self; others
- reality (fantasy) |
|
|
Term
| conciousness is a kind of ___, and the ___ is a ___ ( what marvin minsky calls a ___) |
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Definition
| flashlight; flashlight beam; limited resource, (serial bottleneck) |
|
|
Term
our conscious self is offered a ___
- the ___ select one
- this repeats ___ |
|
Definition
set of choices
- beam of consciousness
- ad infinitum |
|
|
Term
| people usually think of attention in relation to ___ (and a lot of studies focus on it), but remember that it can apply to any kind of ____ |
|
Definition
| vision; sensory stimulation |
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|
Term
What is attention's goal?
- ___ of the world is neither required nor necissarily attempted
- conscious experiences focus on ___
- details are filled in to give a sense of ___ to our ___
- thus, the point of attention in general is to ___ |
|
Definition
- truthful perception
- gathering information quickly
- continuity; perceptions
- concentrate on what is important |
|
|
Term
| ___ said that consciousness is the taking possession by the mind, in the clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem severely simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| james firmly believed that we have the ability to control our consciousness through ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
is it possible we simply think we have control over our experiences?
- we assume a choice was made because ___, not because we ___ |
|
Definition
| attention shifted; made it |
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|
Term
Directing attention
- ___ can be voluntary, but ___
- ___ is never voluntary even though ___
-- the target is ___ |
|
Definition
- visual saccades; usually we aren't aware of them
- smooth pursuit; we are tracking the object
-- kept on the fovea automatically |
|
|
Term
pop-outs
- usually do a ___ to find one stimulus among many other similar ones
-- takes ___ each in turn
- sometimes a slight difference is a key characteristic, so it is ___ |
|
Definition
- serial search
-- a long time to evaluate
- immediately obvious |
|
|
Term
Inattentional Blindness
- subjects to to attend to __ will ___
- ___ and __ are not the same
-- if the fovea is __ on a fixation point, attention ___
-- will not notice a ____, even though ___ |
|
Definition
- to attend to one area; actively inhibit attention elsewhere
- focus; attention
-- centered; can still be directed to the side
-- stimulus at the fixation point; the eye is directed right at it |
|
|
Term
| there are many researchers trying to understand conciousness, including: |
|
Definition
philosophers - since forever
neurophysiologists - fMRI studies
cognitive psychologists
robotocists - AI |
|
|
Term
NREM-REM sleep ___ controversy
- REM sleep is not ___
- ___ memory |
|
Definition
mentation
- qualitatively
- dream |
|
|
Term
three dimensions of the AIM model (hobson)
- ___ would be a fourth dimesion
- brain may only occupy ___ although ___ |
|
Definition
activation, input source, modulation
- time
- a small number of points; parameters are continuous |
|
|
Term
Three dimensions: activation
- ___: mean firing frequency of brain stem neurons (approximated from EEG spectrum)
-- measure of level of ___
- high levels of ___
- activation and deactivation of ___
- REM sleep is termed ___: disasscociation between level of ___ and level of ___ |
|
Definition
- brain activation
-- gamma frequency
- cortical activation
- particular brain regions
- paradoxical sleep; behavioral arousal; brain activation |
|
|
Term
| humans measure gamma frequency oscillation (___) by EEG, has been suggested as the critical component for ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
three dimensions: input sources
- ___ and ___ stimuli
- parameters measured as ___ (___)
- ___ in wake leads to dreamlike mentation:
-- brain is ___
-- brain-mind has lost ___, so it must turn to ___ |
|
Definition
- internal; external
- arousal thresholds (H reflex in humans, PGO wave frequency in animals)
- sensory deprivation
-- highly activated
-- external sensory input; internal sources of input |
|
|
Term
3rd dimension - input sources
- brain-mind state of sleep walking exhibits ___, but maintains some ___ |
|
Definition
| - low brain activity; external input |
|
|
Term
third dimensions: modulation
- determined by the action of cortical ___
-- measured as the ratio of __ to __ chemical influence upon the brain
- effected by: |
|
Definition
- neuromodulators
-- aminergic; cholinergic
- ach, serotonin, ne, dopamine, histamine, adenosine, orexin/hypocretin |
|
|
Term
| ___, ___, ___ are critical in wake, NREM, REM transitions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: evidence that REM sleep can support unimparied cognitive function and a methodology for studying the psychophysiology of dreaming |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Lucid dreaming
- the dreamer ___
- ___ occur while the dreamer remains soundly asleep and vividly experiencing a dream world that is often indistinguishable from the real world
- can actively __ in and often __ experiences in the dream movement
- the dreamer can __, remember the conditions of __, and act upon reflection or in accordance with plans decided upon before sleep |
|
Definition
- fully aware that he or she is dreaming
- cognitive function
- participate; manipulate
- reason clearly; waking life |
|
|
Term
lucid dreaming
- found almost exclusively in ___
- demonstrates that loss of self-reflective awareness is not necessary to ___
- lucid dreamers can remember to perform ___ |
|
Definition
- REM sleep
- dreaming
- predetermined actions and signal to the lab |
|
|
Term
| ___ appeared on polygraph records during REM and proved subjects had been lucid dreaming during uninterrupted REM sleep |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Results
- eye-movment signaling verified lucid dreams up to __ in duration
- the average lucid dream lasted __
- at the onset of lucid dreams, there is an ___ |
|
Definition
- 50 mins
- 2 mins
- increased tendency to awaken |
|
|
Term
| the low average length of lucid dreams is most likely due to the ___ and the ___ |
|
Definition
| short duration of the experiments; awake with full recall |
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|
Term
| the increased tendency to awaken is most likely due to the fact that lucid dreamers are __, thus ____ causing them to wake up |
|
Definition
| thinking; drawing attention away from their dream |
|
|
Term
problems with hobson's aim model
- the three dimensions are actually ___
- activation-varies as a function of __
- input one sense can ___ while ___, confounding of sensory and motor input
- mode of info input-attempts to reduce the ___ of the brain |
|
Definition
- multi-dimensional
- brain location
- remain awake; other fall asleep
- neurochemical complexity |
|
|
Term
hobson claims that self-reflection in dreams is generally found to be absent or greatly reduced relative to waking
- the studies had __ and __
- a different study show nearly identical frequencies of reflection between __ and ___ when the two states were compared directly |
|
Definition
- weak designs and small sample sizes
- dreaming; waking |
|
|
Term
| Time intervals in lucid dreams are __ to actual clock time |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dreamed breathing __ to actual respiration |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
dreamed movement resulted in __ of muscle twitching
- the muscular responses due to the dreamed movments were __, but still __, due to the inhibition of skeletal muscles during REM sleep |
|
Definition
corresponding patterns
- feeble; accurate |
|
|
Term
| dreamed sexual activity is associated with physiological responses ___ to those that accompany actual sexual activity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in rem sleep, dreamed bodily movements generate ___ ___ at the ___ level to the patterns of neuronal activity that would be generated if the corresponding movements were actually executed |
|
Definition
| motor output; equivalent; supraspinal |
|
|
Term
| the intensity of the movments generated is __ than the intensity of the movement dreamed due to the ___ during rem sleep |
|
Definition
| lower; paralysis of voluntary muscles |
|
|
Term
| the motor system is working in REM essentially as it is in waking except for the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| many areas of the brain are correlated with certain kinds of ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
stimuli enter the brain through the __, the brain ___, & __ results
- consciousness does not appear in a __
- consciousness does not appear at a __ |
|
Definition
senses; processes it; behavior
- place
- time |
|
|
Term
| dennett proposes that everything in the brain is under ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
most people believe that "seeing"
- is a conscious stream of __
- represents the __ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| - when part of an object is obscured, we __ the missing info. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
visual stimuli are __ and __, but our ___ is not
- __ and __ are individual cells
- cells' responses to __ take time |
|
Definition
pixilated spatially; temporally; perception
- rods; cones
- changing stimuli |
|
|
Term
| __ is a significant gap, but we never see a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
people often don't notice ___ between two pictures
- this is especially true if ___ |
|
Definition
minor changes
- you don't see them at the same time |
|
|
Term
what is vision's goal
- __ of the world is neither required nor necessarily attempted
- conscious experiences focus on ___
- ___ are filled in to give a sense of continuity to our perceptions
- the point of attention in general is to ____ |
|
Definition
- truthful perception
- gathering info quickly
- details
- concentrate on what is important |
|
|
Term
Neurogenesis
- previously thought that ___, but it has become clear that ___
- two zones of neurogenesis: __ and ___
- __: incorporates into DNA of dividing cells
- __: protein found in young neurons
- __: marker of astrocytes |
|
Definition
- new neurons are not formed after birth (or in some cases puberty); new neurons are formed throughout life
- hippocampus (dentate gyrus); subventricular zone (SVZ)
- BrdU
- Nestin
- GFAP |
|
|
Term
| the subventricular zone (SVZ) generates __ in the __ |
|
Definition
| new neurons; olfactory bulb |
|
|
Term
| the ___ (SGZ) generates new ___ |
|
Definition
| dentate gyrus subgranular zone; hippocampal neurons |
|
|
Term
neural plasticity
- the ability of the nervous system to chaing its __ and __ during ___, learning, environmental challenges, injury or disease
- may be __ or ___ |
|
Definition
- structure; function; development (maturation)
- adaptive; maladaptive |
|
|
Term
true or false
- the adult brain cannot grow new neurons (after puberty)
- the adult brain cannot regenerate axons
- the adult brain cannot form new synapses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
ability to recover from injury varies by:
- __
- __
_ __ |
|
Definition
- species (lower vertebrate > higher)
- age (young > old)
- system (PNS > CNS) |
|
|
Term
Potential modes of neural plasticity
- synapse modification:
- axonal __, __
- axonal or dendritic ___
- ___ (__) |
|
Definition
- degenration/elimination, synaptogenesis, unmasking, stabilization, changes in synaptic efficiency (LTP, LTD)
- regeneration, remyelination
- collateral sprouting
- neurogenesis (gliogenesis, angiogenesis) |
|
|
Term
synaptic formation and competition during development
- elimination of __ is based on __ by __ |
|
Definition
| synapses; differential activity; competing inputs |
|
|
Term
synaptical plasticity/axonal sprouting
- __ neurons on target cell undergo ___ |
|
Definition
| - presynaptic; synaptic rearrangement |
|
|
Term
axonal sprouting/regeneration
1. precise regeneraton from the ___ to the __
2. regeneration of the severed fiber to the original target through __
3. sprouting from ___ onto the ___
4. formation of ____
5. sprouting of the injured fiber proximal to the __ towards __ near the __
6. enhanced __ through __ |
|
Definition
1. severed fiber; original target
2. an ectopic pathway
3. unlesioned, heterologous neighboring fibers; denervated target neuron
4. atypical synaptic relay circuits
5. lesion; neurons; denervated neuron
6. intrinsic plasticity; sensory feedback training |
|
|
Term
| __ can occur after injury or disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hillar neurons terminat on ___ of __ |
|
Definition
| inner molecular layer; dentate gyrus |
|
|
Term
| entorhinal cortex terminates on __ of __ |
|
Definition
| outer molecular layer; dentate gyrus |
|
|
Term
| entorhinal lesion model removes __ to __ |
|
Definition
| cortical inputs; hippocampus |
|
|
Term
aberrant sprouting: epilepsy
- normal: __ axons, the __, terminate on __
- epilepsy: __ from __ sprout to terminate on ___ in addition to __ |
|
Definition
- granule cell; mossy fibers; CA3 pyrimidal cells
- mossy fibers; granule cells; the inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus; CA3 |
|
|
Term
axonal regeneration does not normally occur in the ___
- experiment by david and aguayo demonstrated that ___ inhibits regeneration
- __ transection (CNS)
- ___ nerve (PNS)
- ___ axons regenerate along __
- no regeneration through the __
- functional connection demonstrated by __ in response to light signal |
|
Definition
CNS
- CNS myelin
- optic nerve
- graft sciatic
- retinal ganglion cell; graft
- optic nerve
- action potential |
|
|
Term
___ is use-dependent plasticity
- overuse or disuse of a limb leads to __ or __, respectively, in the corresponding ___ of that limb
- ___ rearrange (__), altering the ___ |
|
Definition
cortical plasticity
- enlargement; reduction; cortical representation
- cortical projections; (collateral sprouting); cortical representation pattern |
|
|
Term
Brainbow mice
- researchers introduced genetic machinery that randomly mixes fluorescent proteins in individual neurons thereby creating a palette of __ distinctive hues and colors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
brain plasticity
- ___ elimination
- ___ modification
- ___ periods |
|
Definition
- synapse
- connection
- critical |
|
|
Term
brain plasticity
- refers to the bran's ability to __, for better or worse, throughout life
- is a __ process
-- __ can actually shrink or thicken
-- __ can be forged and refined or weakened and severed
- changes in the brain manifest as ___ |
|
Definition
- change
- physical
-- gray matter (cell bodies)
-- neural
- changes in our abilities |
|
|
Term
__: finite number of synapses a neuron can receive
- peaks __ and declines as __
-- e.g. visual cortical neurons in infant brain receive ___ the synapses as adult neurons
- what contributes to the rate of loss of neurons: |
|
Definition
synaptic capacity
- early in development; neurons mature
- 1.5
- cell death, competition which leads to synapse elimination |
|
|
Term
the elimination of cells and synapses
- during development, large scale reduction in __ and __
- function depends upon balance between __ and elimination of ___ |
|
Definition
- neurons and synapses
- genesis; cells and synapses |
|
|
Term
__: life sustaining substances provided in limited qualities by target cells
- first discovered was __
- keeps __ and __ alive
- cells that don't get it __ |
|
Definition
trophic factors
- nerve growth factor (NGF)
- sympathetic; dorsal root ganglia cells
- die |
|
|
Term
synapse elimination
- at first, muscle fibers are __
- when mature, each muscle fiber innervated by ___
- does activity play a role in this withdrawal? |
|
Definition
- polyneuronally innervated
- only one alpha neuron
- yes, but silence all receptors on muscle |
|
|
Term
| so can get synapse ___ in addition to synapse ___ that happens with __ during development |
|
Definition
| withdrawal; elimination; cell death |
|
|
Term
| does our brain change after it is mature? |
|
Definition
| yes, through synaptic rearrangement |
|
|
Term
| visual system first demonstrated __ of synaptic rearrangement |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
eye specific segregation of __ to __
- retinal terminals active at the same time as __ are maintained |
|
Definition
retinal inputs; LGN
- postsynaptic target |
|
|
Term
neurons that ___, ___
- __ lose their link |
|
Definition
fire together, wire together
- out of sync |
|
|
Term
| ___: info from the left eye and the right eye are kept distinct in V1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| columns of a moncularly deprived eye ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ability to make cortical shift declines with ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
___: a period of time in which intercellular communication alters a cell's fate
- ___ can easily take place |
|
Definition
critical period
- activity dependent plasticity |
|
|
Term
___ mediate plasticity
a) ___ properties
b) ___
c) ___ |
|
Definition
glutamate receptors
a. NMDA receptor
b. long term potentiation (LTP)
c. long term depression (LTD) |
|
|
Term
two kinds are glutamate receptors: __ & __
- both of these receptors are __ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
glutamate receptors
- AMPA receptors are ___
- NMDA receptors are ___ |
|
Definition
- ligand gated
- ligand and voltage gated |
|
|
Term
| to be activated, NMDA receptor must __ and ___ |
|
Definition
| bind glutamate; be on a depolarized membrane |
|
|
Term
at resting potential, a ___ sits in the NMDA receptor and ___
- __ is driven out of the channel by __
- this allows ___ through the channel if __ is bound to the receptor
- flowing: ___ |
|
Definition
Mg++ ion; blocks ion flow
- Mg++ ion; depolarization of the membrane
- ion flow; glutamate
- Na+, K+, Ca++ |
|
|
Term
| NMDA receptor is the sensor of ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hebb said that ____ and ___ |
|
Definition
| neurons that fire together wire together; out of sync lose their link |
|
|
Term
hypothesis for the end of critical period
- ___ diminishes:
-- when ___ ceases
-- when ___ matures
--- shift in ___ to one that decreases ___
-- when __ is constrained |
|
Definition
- plasticity
-- axon growth
-- synaptic transmission
--- NMDA receptor subunits; calcium influx
-- cortical activation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
long term potentiation (LTP) is an increase in ___ that lasts more than __
- first demonstrated in the ___ |
|
Definition
synaptic strength; 30 minutes
- hippocampus |
|
|
Term
cellular basis of LTP
- ___ activation leads to __ |
|
Definition
| NMDA receptor; AMPA receptor insertion |
|
|
Term
strong NMDA receptor activation increases synaptic strength by:
1) increasing the number of ___
2) activating a ___ that ___ and increases ___ |
|
Definition
1) postsynaptic AMPA receptors
2) kinase; phosphorylates AMPA receptors; the ionic flow through them |
|
|
Term
| block LTP by blocking ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
morris water maze (hippocampus role in spatial learning)
- rats with bilateral hippocampal lesion or ___ never learn the location of platform |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| synapse strength can be modified ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| synapse strength can be modified ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
long-term synaptic depression
- neurons fire __
- decrease in ___
- synaptic plasticity mechanism:
-- requires __ activity and __ influx
-- lots of ___
-- __ of __ so they conduct less current |
|
Definition
- out of sync
- synaptic strength
-- NMDA receptor; calcium
-- synaptic AMPARs
-- dephosphorylation; AMPA receptors |
|
|
Term
| LTP: ___ influx through __ receptor activates ___ |
|
Definition
| lots of calcium; NMDA; protein kinase |
|
|
Term
| LTD: __ influx through __ receptor activates ___ |
|
Definition
| little calcium; NMDA; protein phosphatase |
|
|
Term
___ is not a single entity
- consists of ___
- depends on ___
- two types of memories: |
|
Definition
memory
- several entities
- different brain systems
- declarative (explicit) memory; non-declarative (procedural, implicit) memory |
|
|
Term
declarative memory
- conscious recollection of __ and __
- is __ and __ |
|
Definition
- facts; events
- episodic; semantic |
|
|
Term
non-declarative (procedural, implicit) memory
- __ learning
- expressed through ___ |
|
Definition
- nonconscious learning
- performance |
|
|
Term
types of memory and amnesia
- ___: acquisition of new information
- ___: retention of learned information
- ___: facts and events
- ___: skills, habits, behaviors |
|
Definition
- learning
- memory
- declarative memory (explicit)
- nondeclarative memory (implicit, procedural) |
|
|
Term
explicit memory
- requires ___ effort
- easy to __, easily __ |
|
Definition
- conscious
- form; forgotten |
|
|
Term
implicit memory
- results from ___
- not available to ___
- takes longer to __; longer __ |
|
Definition
- direct experience
- consciousness
- form; retention |
|
|
Term
short term (working) memory
- lasts ____
- can hold ___
- requires ___ |
|
Definition
- seconds to minutes
- ~7 items (such as phone numbers)
- rehearsal (disrupted by distraction_ |
|
|
Term
long term memory
- lasts ___
- can be __ or __ |
|
Definition
- days, weeks, or even months
- declarative; nondeclarative |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. encoding: acquisition and consolidation
2. storage
3. retrieval |
|
|
Term
___: serious loss of memory and/or ability to learn
- causes include: |
|
Definition
amnesia
- concussion, chronic alcoholism, encephalitis, brain tumor, or stroke |
|
|
Term
types of amnesia
- ___: forget things you already knew
- ___: inability to form new memories
- ___: shorter period
-- symptoms include: |
|
Definition
- retrograde amnesia
- anterograde amnesia
- transient global amnesia
-- disoriented, ask same questions repeatedly, attacks subside in couple of hours, permanent memory gap |
|
|
Term
amnesic patients with brain damage to medial temporal lobe
- impaired in tests of ___ memory
- perform will in tests of __ memory
- different __ must be involved in the two types of memory |
|
Definition
- declarative (such as lists)
- non-declarative
- brain regions |
|
|
Term
declarative memory
- ___ required to form long-term declarative memory
-- __,___, ___
- ___ thought to be permanent repository of memory
- memory formation may involve strengthening connections between __ and ___ |
|
Definition
- medial temporal lobe (hippocampal formation and adjacent cortices)
-- entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex
- neocortex
- medial temporal lobe; neocortex |
|
|
Term
non-declarative (procedural) memory
- acquisition of __ and __
- acquired gradually through ___
- depends on ___ and ___
- individuals with Huntington's disease have difficulty acquiring __, but have relatively intact __ |
|
Definition
- skills and habits
- repetitive practice
- cortico-striatal system; cerebellum (ex. eye-blinking conditioning)
- new motor skills; explicit memory |
|
|
Term
eyeblink conditioning
- consists of __ and __
- __ required for acquisition and retrieval |
|
Definition
- air puff; auditory tone
- cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| ___ prevent learning of the classically conditioned nictitating membrane/eyelid response |
|
Definition
| ipsilateral cerebellar lesions |
|
|
Term
working memory
- ___ retention
- operates over periods of __
- used to hold info "on-line" for __, __, __
- great example is __
- hm had __ short term memory
- largely localized to __ and __ |
|
Definition
- short-term
- seconds
- comprehending; reasoning; problem solving
- phone numbers
- relatively intact
- prefrontal; frontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| declarative memory takes place in the __ and ___ |
|
Definition
| medial temporal lobe; diencephalon |
|
|
Term
nondeclarative memory
- skills and habits
-- __ is important
- classical conditioning
-- __ important for skeletal musculature while __ important for emotional responses |
|
Definition
-- striatum
-- cerebellum; amygdala |
|
|
Term
Cognitive disorders:
- disorders of language: ___
- disorders of learning and memory: ___
- disorders of thought and violition: __
- disorders of mood: ___, __, __ |
|
Definition
- aphasias
- alzheimer's disease and related disorders
- schizophrenia
- depression, mood, anxiety disorders |
|
|
Term
___: loss of intellectual function so severe that it interferes with an individual's daily functioning
- ___ is the most common form of dementia
- related disorders include: |
|
Definition
dementia
- alzheimer's disease
- pick's disease, dementia with lewy bodies, progressive supranuclear palsy, prion disease, huntington's disease, parkinson's disease, nutritional disorders |
|
|
Term
___ affects 4 million americans, 14-22 million by 2025
- 3-5% of population at age __, __% at age 85
- slightly greater incidence in __, but this may reflect their __
- half of all ___ |
|
Definition
alzheimer's disease
- 65; 25-50
- females; longer lives
- nursing home residents |
|
|
Term
| __ is the major risk factor for alzheimer's disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
alzheimer's disease
- first described by __
- formerly referred to as __
- most individuals diagnosed are greater than age __, but can strike individuals in their __
- approximately __ is familial (genetic), typically early onset
- onset of symptoms to death is __ years, average is __ years |
|
Definition
- alois alzheimer
- presenile dementia
- 65; 30s
- 5%
- 3-20; 8 |
|
|
Term
symptoms
- __ and __ memory loss
- decline in ability to ___
- __
- loss of ___
- __ changes |
|
Definition
- gradual; progressive
- perform routine tasks
- disorientation
- language skills
- personality |
|
|
Term
alzheimer's disease genetics
- __ familial
- mutations found in:
-- __: now identified as part of __ complex that cleaves ___ to form __
-- ___ (__)
- down syndrome is ___
- risk factors: __ genotype(__)
- mutations in __ protein (__)
-- ___ with __
-- not __, but related __ |
|
Definition
- 5%
-- presenillins 1 and 2; secretase complex; amyloid precursor protein; beta-amyloid
-- amyloid precursor protein (chr 21)
- trisomy 21
- apoE4 (apolipoprotein E, involved in triglyceride and cholesterol transport) (chr 19)
- tau; (chr 17)
-- frontotemporal dementia; parkinsonism (FTDP-17)
- AD; dementia |
|
|
Term
| pathology of ad involved __, __, ___ |
|
Definition
| senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, neuropil threads |
|
|
Term
pathology
- senile plaques: __ and __
- neuropil threads: __ |
|
Definition
- beta amyloid; neurotic, diffuse plaques
- tau protein |
|
|
Term
| __ forms tangles in alzheimer's disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| neurofibrillary (__) pathology in AD |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ad brain contains ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| senile plaques (Beta amyloid); neurofibrillary tangles (tau) |
|
|
Term
considerable debate with regard to causal role of __ vs. __, __ vs. __
- mutations affect __ processing or levels
-- but __ severity does not correlate with __ severity, animal models develop __ but not __
-- soluble levels of __ correlate with dementia |
|
Definition
plaques; tangles; amyloid; tau
- beta amyloid
-- plaque; dementia; plaques; tangles
-- beta amyloid |
|
|
Term
__ density does correspond to dementia severity
- but __ are not associated with AD
- __ in FTDP-17 result in dementia without ___ |
|
Definition
tangle
- tau mutations
- tau mutations; senile plaques |
|
|
Term
| __: branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders that affect the mind or psyche |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lifetime prevalence for major depression alone is about ___ in the USA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| __: branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| __: clear damage to nervous system. helps to illustrate the role of ___ or __ in normal functions. |
|
Definition
| neurological disorders; physiological processes; specific brain regions |
|
|
Term
Mental illness and behavior genetics
- there are specific mutations of specific genes that cause __ and others for __, but they are very rare in general. |
|
Definition
| huntington's disease; early onset alzheimer's |
|
|
Term
is there a genetic predisposition towards behaviors, thoughts, feelings, mental illness, responses to drugs, etc?
- but always interacting with the __ too
- ___, ___, as opposed to ___ |
|
Definition
yes, clearly?
- environment
- multifactorial inheritance, complex genetics; mendelian |
|
|
Term
| in humans inherited behaviors can be demonstrated by ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
physical and mental health
- not so __, and clearly __
- both physical and mental illness contribute to ___
-- mental illness comparable to ___ and cardiovascular diseases as measured by __
- both exist on continuum from __ to __, although considerations of mental health are more subjected to __ and __ |
|
Definition
- different; interconnected
- disabilities
-- cancer; DALY (disability adjusted life years)
- health; illness; values; societal norms |
|
|
Term
some major mental ilnesses
- schizophrenia: __
- schizoaffective disorder: __
- bipolar disorder (manic depression):
- major depression: __
-- higher in the __ and in __
-- SAD increases with __
-- __ very high for all of these |
|
Definition
- 0.4-0.7%
- 0.5-0.8%
- 1%, or greater if count bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia
- 5-20%
-- USA; females
-- lower sunlight
-- suicide rates |
|
|
Term
diagnostic process
- diagnosed with a __ conducted by a specially trained professional often based on __
- questions about ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
clinical interview; DSM (diagnostic and statistic manual)
- symptoms you have; how you are functioning in areas of your life |
|
|
Term
diagnostic process (cont)
- symptoms must __ during ___
- no __, __, or __
- use of __ and __ to rule out other causes |
|
Definition
- co-occur together; the same period of time
- blood test, x-ray, or brain scan
- physical exam; lab tests/blood tests |
|
|
Term
biological bases of anxiety disorders
- fear evokes by ___
- manifested by ___
- ___ strengthened (and weakened) by __
- stress: __--___ > ___ > ___ |
|
Definition
- threatening stimulus (stressor)
- stress response
- stimulus-response relationship; experience
- HPA (hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis)-- corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)> adenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH) > cortisol |
|
|
Term
regulation of the HPA axis by the __ and __
- both regulate __
--___ projects to ___, which activates ___
-- ___ deactivates the ___ though __ and ___
- __ style of regulation |
|
Definition
amygdala; hippocampus
- CRH neurons
-- amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis; the HPA axis
-- hippocampus; HPA axis; glucocorticoid receptors; feedback loop
- push-pull |
|
|
Term
__: all-encompassing low mood accompanies by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities
- problems in __, ___, __, __
- feelings of __, __, __ |
|
Definition
major depression
- appetite, sleep, concentration, energy
- guilt, hopelessness, worthlessness |
|
|
Term
major depression has been thought to be caused by __ consistent with the action of ___
- however this hypothesis is clearly __ or even ___ |
|
Definition
reduced monoamines; various anti-depressants
- not complete; generally correct |
|
|
Term
major anti-depressant drugs and their mode of action
-1950's ___ then ___
- 1980's ___ |
|
Definition
- MAOi; tricyclics
- SSRI's (fluoxetine=prozac) |
|
|
Term
medications for depression
- persons with a first episode of depression may need treatment for __, unless they had a very ___, were __, or ___.
- persons with more than one episode may require lifelong treatment with medications because the ___ |
|
Definition
-only 1 year; prolonged or severe episode; elderly; psychotic
- risk of relapse increases the more episodes that a person experiences |
|
|
Term
medications for depression
- risk of relapse w/o medication: __ after one episode, __ after 2 episodes, __ after 3 episodes
- efficacy of __ may be exaggerated by publication bias for positive results.
- still unclear why ___ from SSRI's
- __ may play a role in depression too |
|
Definition
- 50%, 70%, 90%
- SSRI's
- it often takes weeks to benefit
- HPA axis |
|
|
Term
bipolar disorder
- __ occur between to poles, highest of __ to lowest of __
- __, which alters second messenger systems, is often effective in controlling both the mania and depression
- periods of __ can sometimes lead to great work, and may be missed by sufferers of this disorder |
|
Definition
- mood swings; mania; depression
- lithium
- mania |
|
|
Term
medications for bipolar disorder
- __ chance of relapse if taking medications
- __ chance of relapse if not taking medications |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
psychosis or psychotic
- "loss of __ with __" may involve hallucinations, delusions, paranoia
- most commonly associated with __, but can occur in __ and other disorders
- generally not good terms to use as they are poorly defined, although they may be useful to describe more sudden alterations in __ or __ |
|
Definition
- contact; reality
- schizophrenia; bipolar
- thought processes or behavior |
|
|
Term
schizophrenia
- symptoms: disordered __, __, __ (often __), disorganized __, __ behavior, reduced ___ |
|
Definition
| thoughts; delusions; hallucinations (often auditory: hearing voices), disorganized speech, catatonic, emotional expression |
|
|
Term
schizoaffective disorder
- symptoms of __ are predominant and also have an added ___ |
|
Definition
| schizophrenia; mood disorder |
|
|
Term
dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia
- most __ block __ |
|
Definition
| antipsychotics (neuroleptics); D2 (and other) dopamine receptors |
|
|
Term
| effective doses of neuroleptics correlate well with ___ |
|
Definition
| D2 receptor binding affinities |
|
|
Term
medications for schizophrenia/schizoaffective
- about __ chance of relapse if not taking medications
- about __ chance of relapse if taking medications |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| there is evidence that schizophrenia ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
__ is measured using resemblance between relatives
- formula:
- note that none of this values are __, so ___ is not a __ value |
|
Definition
heritibility
- h(2) = genetic variation/phenotypic variation (genetic + environmental + interaction)
- fixed; heritability; fixed |
|
|
Term
methods for genetic mapping disease genes
- __ analysis
- __ studies
- ___ in model organisms |
|
Definition
- linkage
- association
- experimental crosses |
|
|
Term
| linkage describes the phenomenon whereby __ at __ are ___, thus they will be ___ |
|
Definition
| alleles; neighboring loci; close to one another on the same chromosome; transmitted together more frequently than chance |
|
|
Term
Likelihood odds
- formula = |
|
Definition
likelihood of data if loci linked at theta
/ likelihood of data if loci unlinked
= L(theta<0.5)/L(theta=0.5) |
|
|
Term
LOD score
- LOD stands for __
- LOD score = |
|
Definition
- log of odds
- log L(theta<0.5)/L(theta = 0.5) |
|
|
Term
most traits (including all mental illness) are ___
- __, __, ___ |
|
Definition
complex
- multifactorial, polygenic, multigenic |
|
|
