A pedigree is a family tree which displays known phenotypes. Special markings are used for individuals whose phenotypes are not known or who either died prematurely or are unknown for other reasons

Circles are used for females, squares for males and a diamond for unknown individuals. Colored in means affected by target trait, uncolored means not affected and half colored means that the individual is heterozygous/a carrier for the target trait

A single line on the same level means breeding between non-relatives, double-line means between relatives. Individuals on the same line are typically within the same generation but not necessarily. Vertical lines descending from horizontal lines to form a new line with individuals means that those individuals are siblings and the individuals above are parents

They have to have an affected parent in order to acquire that trait (unless they somehow came to be affected by a novel mutation which is extremely rare)

Most people would simply be carriers for the trait, some people would be free of the trait and some people would express the trait. Offspring of an affected individual would either possess the trait or be carriers for the trait depending on the phenotype of the other parent. Offspring of carriers would be affected at a rate of 25% free of trait, 50% carriers and 25% affected by the trait

Let's say there's a species of flowers whose petal color is determined by one allele. If the color options are red, pink and white and the parents are heterozygous then 25% would receive both dominant alleles and be red, 50% would be heterozygous and be pink and the last 25% would be homozygous recessive and be white

In the case of codominance a heterozygous individual would express the traits of both homozygous genotypes

It means that there are more than 2 types of genes in a population

There could either be multiple genes (that either code for the same mutation or aren't affected by the mutation in the case of a base change) or there could be environmental factors that prevent the phenotype from being expressed

It refer to the fact that there may be varying levels of expression for the same combinations of the same gene or gene groups. This could be caused by either gene interference or environmental factors

Penetrance is the proportion of people whose phenotype matches their genotype. You could use the equation [(resulting phenotype / same genotype within population) / same genotype within population ] x 100 to determine the percentage of people who match a given genotype based on their expressed phenotype

Gene interaction is when one gene's expression interferes with the expression of another. It could also be called gene interference

Epistasis occurs when one gene's expression masks that of another gene. You could have something like recessive epistasis where with a homozygous recessive genotype you get a 9:3:4 offspring expression ratio or you could have duplicate dominant epistasis where both dominant alleles of any volume result in the same phenotype; offspring have a 15:1 ratio in this case

Complimentation refers to when there are 2 mutations on alleles on different genes. In the case of a recessive trait if there is only one copy in 2 different places the wildtype will result within the phenotype. This is different from just one single gene spot coding for a trait; this is where things like hair color get such deviation from

Arrange all of the known mutant genes around a circle and for any crosses which result in a mutant phenotype draw a line between each gene. For every gene connected by a line (or indirectly connected by lines) you know that each of those mutant genes are in the same location

It simply refers to a complete set of chromosomes with no additional or missing chromosomes

Somatic cells contain the standard number of chromosomes (46 individual chromosomes / 23 pairs including the X/Y pair). They're called diploids since they contain 2 copies of each chromosome

They are called haploid since they only contain one individual chromosome from each original pair

Here there are 3 critical checkpoints that the cell must pass in order to go on to the S phase (you only have to know that there are checkpoints involved, not that there are actually 3, I just know that from AP Bio)

The primary function here is to copy DNA so that there is enough DNA to be given to each daughter cell

Check the DNA for copying errors or damage and repair those issues

The chromosomes compact and, with proper staining techniques, can be viewed under a light microscope under the right conditions

Mitotic spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres at the kinetochore. Once they're attached the chromosomes move towards the center of the cell until they're right in the middle of the 2 centromeres from which the spindle fibers originate

The chromosomes seperate and start to go towards what will eventually become their respective daughter cells. Once this split occurs the chromosomes are regarded as individual chromosomes in their own regard

The daughter cells split from each other and evidence of cell division fades away

Meiosis produces gametes for reproduction and each resulting haploid has 23 individual chromosomes

They're sex cells; for women they're oocytes (pronounced oo-oh-sites, oo as in "moo") and men they're spermocytes

A 4-stranded structure is produced which then undergoes crossing over

Recombination

Chiasma is the physical result of recombination. Without chiasma all chromosomes of individuals would be exactly the same as each other and there would be no difference between individuals of any given species

The chromosomes are no longer identical along their entire length. Because they swaped some material during crossing over there could be mutations on a crossing over section which are now on a chromosome from a different individual when no such mutations existed before