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| Khan Kubrat starts to rule in Great Bulgaria. |
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| The Battle of Tours halts the advance of Islam into Western Europe and establishes a balance of power between Western Europe, Islam and the Byzantine Empire. |
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| The Normans defeat a French army as it is caught pillaging and plundering. King Henry I of France withdraws his main army from Normandy as a result. |
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Norman conquest of England
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Battle of Manzikert (Seljuk Turks defeat Byz)
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end of Zheng He’s voyages/Rise of Ottomans
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| founder of the religion of Islam and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of God |
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| the first wife of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Khadijah was the daughter of Khuwaylid ibn Asad and Fatimah bint Za'idah and belonged to the clan of Banu Hashim. |
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| the holiest meeting site of the Islamic religion, closely followed by Madinah, The city is modern, cosmopolitan and while being closed to non-Muslims, is nonetheless ethnically diverse. |
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| a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and it is historically significant for being his home after the Hijrah. |
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| Muhammad's father-in-law, closest companion and adviser, who succeeded to the Prophet's political and administrative functions, thereby initiating the office of the caliphate. He was also the first convert to Islam, after Khadija, Muhammad's first wife. |
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| the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661. |
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| the second of the four Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. |
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| a Frankish military and political leader, who served as Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian kings and ruled de facto during an interregnum (737–43) at the end of his life, using the title Duke and Prince of the Franks. |
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| the third of the Islamic Caliphates of the Islamic Empire. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs from all but Al Andalus. |
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| the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 7.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World (after Cairo). |
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| a Persian alchemist, chemist, physician, philosopher and scholar. He is recognised as a polymath and often referred as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author. |
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| the Eastern Mediterranean at large, but can be used as a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia formed by the lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, roughly bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains, on the south by the Arabian Desert, and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea, while on the east it extends towards the Zagros Mountains. |
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| The Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I. The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West Africa allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River. |
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| the founder of the Mali Empire and celebrated as a hero of the Malinke people of West Africa in the semi-historical Epic of Sundiata. Sundjata is also known by the name Sogolon Djata. The name Sogolon is taken from his mother, daughter of the buffalo woman (so called because of her ugliness and hunchback), and Jata, meaning "lion." |
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| a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African nation of Mali. It was made prosperous by Mansa Musa, tenth mansa of the Mali Empire. It is home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas, and was an intellectual and spiritual capital and centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries |
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| located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, and Western Mali. It first began in the eighth century, when a dramatic shift in the economy of the Sahel area south of the Sahara allowed more centralized states to form. The introduction of the camel, which preceded Muslims and Islam by several centuries, brought about a gradual change in trade, and for the first time, the extensive gold, ivory, and salt resources of the region could be sent north and east to population centers in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe in exchange for manufactured goods. |
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| an African state of west Africa. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest African empires in history. |
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| He reigned from about 1464 to 1492. Sunni Ali was the first great king of the Songhai Empire, located in west Africa and the 15th ruler of the Sonni dynasty. Under Sunni Ali's infantry and cavalry, Songhai extended to cover a great portion of the Niger River area and gained control of crucial trading cities such as Timbuktu and Jenne. |
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| a country in West Africa. It borders Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north; its short coastline to the south leads to the Bight of Benin. |
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| came to the throne of the Malian Empire in 1307 as the tenth emperor and reigned for over twenty years, though the exact date of his death is unknown. At the time of Mansa Musa's rise to the throne, the Malian Empire consisted of Ghana and Melle and immediate surrounding areas, and Musa held many titles, including Emir of Melle, Lord of the Mines of Wangara, and conqueror of Ghanata, Futa-Jallon, and at least another dozen states. |
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generally understood to be the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a, though some adherents of the tradition reserve this term only for those practitioners who have attained the goals of the Sufi tradition. Another name used for the Sufi seeker is Dervish.
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| set up an empire, the Great Seljuq Empire, which at its height stretched from Anatolia through Persia and which was the target of the First Crusade. The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of Turkic power in the Middle East. After arriving in Persia, the Seljuqs adopted the Persian culture and language, and played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition which features. |
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| several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled from Delhi, including the Mamluk dynasty (1206-90), the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526). In 1526 the Delhi Sultanate was absorbed by the emerging Mughal Empire. |
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| the name given to the stone ruins spread out over a 722 hectare area within the modern-day country of Zimbabwe, which itself is named after the ruins. It is near the town of Masvingo, which before majority rule was called Fort Victoria. The word "Great" distinguishes the site from the many hundred small ruins, known as Zimbabwes, spread across the Zimbabwe highveld. |
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| The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. |
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| a Nahua altepetl located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. Founded in 1325, it became the seat of the growing Aztec empire in the 15th Century, until captured by the Spanish in 1521. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in the central part of Mexico City. |
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| a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,430 metres (8,000 ft) above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cuzco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Often referred to as "The Lost City of the Incas", Machu Picchu is one of the most familiar symbols of the Inca Empire. |
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| The altar was built in 1530 during the Ming Dynasty for use in ritual sacrifice to the sun by the Emperor of China. Ritan is also now a public park, and the site features extensive gardens and a small lake. |
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Chinngis (Genghis) Khan/Temujin
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| He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions and raids of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. |
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| A narrow definition includes the Mongols proper, which can be roughly divided into eastern and western Mongols. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe. |
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| a phrase coined by Western scholars to describe the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. |
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| a Moroccan Berber Muslim scholar and traveler who is known for the account of his travels and excursions called the Rihla (Voyage) in Arabic. |
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| in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. |
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| the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history," was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Hans. |
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| the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one king. He also introduced Christianity. He was the son of Childeric I and Basin. At age 16, he succeeded his father, in the year 481. |
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| the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia under the Merovingian king Dagobert I from 623 to 629. He was also the mayor for Sigebert III from 639 until his own death. |
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| pope from 3 September 590 until his death. Gregory is well-known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope |
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| Frankish noble family with its origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century. The name "Carolingian", Medieval Latin karolingi, an altered form of an unattested Old High German derives from the Latinised name of Charles Martel: Carolus. |
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| King of the Franks from 768 to his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into aFrankish Empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and wascrowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 which temporarily made him a rival of theByzantine Emperor in Constantinople. |
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| the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famedlongships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga River in Russia, and as far west as Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland. |
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| n ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 10 million Hungarians in Hungary |
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| Pope from 8 January 1198 until his death. He was born with the name Lottario dei Conti di Segni, sometimes anglicised to Lothar of Segni. |
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| an Italianpriest of the Roman Catholic Church in the Dominican Order, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologianin the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis. |
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| medieval Frenchscholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary. |
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| an English author, poet, philosopher,bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat. Although he wrote many works, he is best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales. Sometimes called the father of english lit. |
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| the King of Englandfrom Christmas, 1066 until his death. He was also William II, Duke of Normandy, from the 3 July 1035 until his death. Before his conquest of England, he was known as "William the Bastard" because of theillegitimacy of his birth. |
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National herion in france and a saint she was a pesent and battled and conqured the hundred year war.
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| an important European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples & Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs. |
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King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella *
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| the most important royal houseof Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1452 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian and Spanish Empires and several other countries. |
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| n imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire |
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| only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Empress Regnant. |
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| a ruling dynasty inChina between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. |
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| the continuation of the Mongol Empire and the Mongol founded historical state in Mongolia and China, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu |
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| the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. As the second son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he claimed the title of Khagan of the Ikh Mongol Uls in 1260 after the death of his older brother Möngke in the previous year |
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| a city in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. on the Guadalquivir river, it was founded in ancient Roman times as Corduba byClaudius Marcellus. |
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| Popefrom 12 March 1088 until his death. He is most known for starting the First Crusade (1095–99) and setting up the modern day Roman Curia, in the manner of a royal court, to help run the Church. |
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| a term that came to be used around the late 19th century to distinguish the residents of the mainland Japan from other minority ethnic groups who have resided in the peripheral areas of Japan such as Ainu, Ryukyuans, Nivkhs, Ulta, as well as Koreans, Taiwanese, and Taiwanese aborigines who were incorporated into the Empire of Japan in the early 20th century. |
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| a Kurdish Muslim who became the Sultan ofEgypt and Syria. He led Islamic opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant. |
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| a soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim Arab caliphs from the 9th to the 16th centuries. They were of mixed ancestry but mainly Kipchak Turks. |
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| a Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan, embraced Islam, the religion professed by most of the people living in its territories. |
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| he subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. Reliable information about the early history of the Ottomans is scarce. According to some sources, the leader of the Kayi tribe of the Oguz Turks, Ertugrul, left Persia in the mid-thirteenth century to escape the invading Mongols. |
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| a 14th-century conqueror of much of western and central Asia, and or Pirnazar founder of the Timurid Empire and Timurid dynasty (1370–1405) in Central Asia, which survived until 1857 as the Mughal Empire of India. |
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| an East Slavic designation for the Mongol later Turkicized—Muslim khanate established in the western part of the Mongol Empire. |
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| merchant from the Venetian Republic who wrote Il Milione, which introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan. |
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| known variably by his given name Zhu Yuanzhang and by the temple name Taizu of the Ming was the founder and first emperor (1368–98) of the Ming Dynasty of China. His era name,Hongwu, means "great military power". |
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| the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. |
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| the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyoto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism,Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height. |
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a powerful family of regents in Japan. The clan originated when the founder,Nakatomi no Kamatari (614-669), was given the surname Fujiwara by Emperor Tenji. The Fujiwara dominated the Japanese politics of Heian period (794–1185) through the monopoly of regent positions, Sesshō and Kampaku. |
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| the official language ofCambodia. It is the second most widely spoken Austroasiatic language, with speakers in the tens of millions. Khmer has been considerably influenced by Sanskrit and Pali, especially in the royal and religious registers, through the vehicles of Hinduism and Buddhism. |
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| an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6 months. |
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| a temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation—first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. |
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| a ninth-century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. |
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| a Catholic deaconand the founder of the Order of Friars Minor, more commonly known as the Franciscans. |
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| a German goldsmith and printerwho is credited with being the first to use movable type printing, in around 1439, and the global inventor of the mechanical printing press. His major work, the Gutenberg Bible, has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. |
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| Greek brothers born in Thessaloniki in the 9th century, who became missionaries of Christianity among the Slavic peoples of Great Moravia and Pannonia. Through their work they influenced the cultural development of all Slavs, for which they received the title "Apostles to the Slavs". |
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| he religion articulated by the Qur’an, a bookconsidered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of the single incomparable God, and by the Islamic prophet Muhammad's demonstrations and real-life examples . |
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| the central religious text of Islam, also sometimestransliterated as Quran, Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran or Al-Qur’ān. Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, and consider the original Arabic text to be the final revelation of God. |
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| the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Sunni Muslim. These duties are Shahada (profession of faith),Salah (prayers), Zakah (giving of alms), Sawm (fasting, specifically during Ramadan) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). These five practices are essential to Sunni Muslims |
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| a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihādis a noun meaning struggle. |
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| the migration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622. Alternate spellings of this Arabic word in the Latin alphabet are Hijrah, or Hegira in Latin. |
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| a pilgrimage to Mecca. It is currently the largest annual pilgrimage in the world, and is the fifth pillar of Islam, a religious duty that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so. |
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| one of the Five Pillars of Islam, is the giving of a small percentage of one's possessions to charity, generally to poor and needy Muslims. It is often compared to the system of tithing and alms, but it serves principally as the welfare contribution to poor and deprived Muslims, although others may have a rightful share. |
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| a per capita tax levied on a section of an Islamic state's non-Muslim citizens, who meet certain criteria. The tax is/was to be levied on able bodied adult males of military age and affording power, but with specific exemptions, though these were discarded at various points in history. |
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| a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance with sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, |
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| the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It is the Islamic month of fasting, in which participatingMuslims refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and indulging in anything that is in excess or ill-natured; from dawn untilsunset. |
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| a cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam. The building predates Islam, and, according to Islamic tradition, the first building at the site was built by Abraham. The building has a mosquebuilt around it, the Masjid al-Haram. |
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| the first form of government inspired by Islam. It was initially led by Muhammad's disciples as a continuation of the political authority the prophet established, known as the 'rashidun caliphates'. It represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah, and was the world's first major welfare state. |
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| n Islamic shrine which houses the Foundation Stone, arguably the holiest spot in Judaism, and is a major landmark located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. |
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| are narrations originating from the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for understanding the Quran and in matters of jurisprudence. |
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| The Umma calendarof Shulgi (ca. 21st century BC) is the immediate predecessor of the later Babylonian calendar, and indirectly of the post-exilic Hebrew calendar. |
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| a term used by Muslim scholars to refer to those countries where Muslims can practice their religion freely. These are usually Islamic cultures wherein Muslims represent the majority of the population, and so the government promises them protection. |
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| a traditional Arab sailing vessel with one or more lateen sails. They are primarily used along the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan, India, and East Africa. Larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty, while smaller dhows typically have crews of around twelve. |
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| union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. The first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Otto I, crowned in 962. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. |
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| was Duke of Saxony, King of Germany, King of Italy, and "the first of the Germans to be called the emperor of Italy" according to Arnulf of Milan. While Charlemagne had been crowned emperor in 800, his empire had been divided amongst his grandsons, and following the assassination of Berengar of Friuli in 924, the imperial title had lain vacant for nearly forty years. |
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| a series of religiously-sanctioned military campaigns waged by much of Latin ChristianEurope, particularly the Franks of France and the Holy Roman Empire. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. |
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| an alliance of tradingcities and their guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly along the coast ofNorthern Europe, from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland, during the Late Middle Agesand early modern period |
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| the world's second largest Christian communion, estimated to number 225 million members. It is considered by its adherents to be the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christand his Apostles almost 2,000 years ago. |
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| a period of international history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. It is commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and contrasted with a later Early Modern Period. |
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| a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and to have "changed the history of architecture." |
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treaty of the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, the son and successor of Charlemagne, which divided the territories of the Carolingian Empire to three kingdoms.
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| a decentralized sociopolitical structure in which a weak monarchy attempts to control the lands of the realmthrough reciprocal agreements with regional leaders. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval Europeanpolitical system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. |
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| a country house, which has historically formed the administrative centre of a manor, the lowest unit of territorial organization in the feudal system. The term is sometimes applied to country houses which belonged to gentry families, as well as to grand stately homes, particularly as a technical term for minor late medieval fortified country houses intended more for show than for defence. |
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| often consisted ofinheritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a lord, generally to a vassal (who holds seisin), in return for a form of allegiance (usually given by homage and fealty), originally to give him the means to fulfill his military duties when called upon. |
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| the socio-economic status of unfree peasants under feudalism, and specifically relates to Manorialism. It was a condition of bondage or modified slavery which developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe. |
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| the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped. |
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| an essential ingredient of feudal society, was the organizing principle of rural economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire, was widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market economy and new forms of agrarian contract. |
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| a decentralized sociopolitical structure in which a weak monarchy attempts to control the lands of the realmthrough reciprocal agreements with regional leaders. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval Europeanpolitical system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. |
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Knights of the medieval era were asked to "Protect the weak, defenseless, helpless, and fight for the general welfare of all." These few guidelines were the main duties of a medieval knight, but they were very hard to accomplish fully. Rarely could even the best of knights achieve these goals. Knights trained, inter alia, in hunting, fighting, and riding.
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| the common law right of the first-born son to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings. According to the Norman tradition, the first-born son inherited the entirety of a parent's wealth, estate, title or office and then would be responsible for any further passing of the inheritance to his siblings. In the absence of children, inheritance passed to the collateral relatives, in order of seniority of the collateral line. |
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| The Black Death was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. It is widely thought to have been an outbreak of bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, but this view has recently been challenged. |
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| a cultural movementthat spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. |
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a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms of theIberian Peninsula succeeded in retaking the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims.TheIslamic conquest of the Christian Visigothic kingdom in the eighth century extended over almost the entire peninsula.
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| to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics (or other offenders against canon law) within the Catholic Church. It may also refer to |
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| proposing some unorthodox change to an established system of belief, especially a religion, that conflicts with the previously established opinion of scholars of that belief such as canon. It is sometimes confused with apostasy which is disaffiliation from orthodoxy and blasphemy which is defamation of orthodox opinion. |
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| the most famous work of Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), although it was never finished. It was intended as a manual for beginners as a compilation of all of the main theological teachings of the time. It summarizes the reasoning for almost all points of Christian theology in the West, which, before the Protestant Reformation, subsisted solely in the Roman Catholic Church. |
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| Magna Carta required King John of England to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered — and implicitly supported what became the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment. |
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| a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne, which was vacant with the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings. |
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| a tribunal established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the medieval inquisition which was under papal control. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts, especially Jews, Muslims and others. |
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| the system of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document. The first known movable type system was invented in China by Bi Sheng out of wood in 1040. |
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| a custom practiced on young girls and women for approximately one thousand years in China, beginning in the 10th century and ending in the early 20th century. |
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| a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty. |
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| the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sent envoys to the west requesting military assistance against the Seljuk Turks. The message was received by Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza; later that year, in November, Urban called the Council of Clermont to discuss the matter further. |
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| a generic term referring to the powerful territorial lords in premodern Japan who ruled most of the country from their vast, hereditary land holdings. In the term, "dai" literally means "large", and "myō" stands for myōden, meaning private land. |
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| a Japanese code of conduct and a way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry. It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality,loyalty, martial arts mastery, and honor unto death. Born of two main influences, the violent existence of the samurai was tempered by the wisdom and serenity of Japanese Shinto Buddhism. |
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| a military rank and historical title for HereditaryCommanders in Chief of the Armed Forces of Japan. The modern rank is equivalent to a Generalissimo. As a title, it is the short form of seii taishōgun, the governing individual at various times in the history of Japan, ending when Tokugawa Yoshinobu relinquished the office to the Meiji Emperor in 1867. |
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| he term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. In Chinese, the character was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau. |
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| a funeral practice among some Hindu communities in which a recently widowed woman would either voluntarily or by use of force and coercion immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. This practice is now rare and outlawed in modern India. |
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| those castrated in order to perform a specific social function, as was common historically in many societies. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the twenty first century BC. |
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| an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the masdar sulṭah, meaning "authority" or "power". |
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| responsible for motion, energy and preservation. and thereby upholds and maintains the activity of the other two gunas; sattva and tamas. Rajas is the force which promotes or upholds the activity of the other aspects of Nature such as one or more of the following: (1) action; (2) change, mutation; (3) passion, excitement; (4) birth, creation, generation |
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| art of Western Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century, or later, depending on region. The preceding period is increasingly known as the Pre-Romanesque. The term was invented by 19th century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style - most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses, and acanthus-leaf decoration - but had also developed many very different characteristics. In Southern France, Spain and Italy there was an architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first style to impact the whole of Catholic Europe, from Denmark to Sicily. |
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| a heterogeneous East Germanic tribe. The historian Jordanes claimed that the Goths arrived from semi-legendary Scandza, believed to be somewhere in modern (Sweden), and that a Gothic population had crossed the Baltic Sea before the 2nd century, lending their name to the region of Gothiscandza, believed to be the lower Vistula region in modern (Poland). |
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| he native language of a population located in a country or in a region defined on some other basis, such as a locality. For example, Navaho is a local language in the southwest of the United States, English is the state language of a number of countries. |
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| They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel and a secret society. They often depended on grants of letters patent by an authority or monarch to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials. |
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| began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 13th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The term renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the nineteenth century, in the work of historians such asJacob Burckhardt. |
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| a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to thesupernatural or to appeals to authority. |
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| he term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. Before 1450 Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century the ideas spread around Europe. The resulting German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Netherlands, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements with different characteristics and strengths. |
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| were recording devices used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean region. A quipu usually consisted of colored spun and plied thread or strings from llama or alpaca hair. It could also be made of cotton cords. |
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| Inca religion is one of the main counter arguments in the debate regarding the notion that the Inca state was an early 'Socialist Empire' (Baudin, 1928). These facts, however, have little to do with the Inca economy, which, with its large-scale central planning, vast system of grain-houses, and mandatory work periods, does closely resemble many features of modern socialism, although there were markets, catus, where barter was practiced without any regulation. |
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a method of ancient Mesoamerican agriculture which used small, rectangle-shaped areas offertile arable land to grow crops on the shallow lake beds in the Valley of Mexico.
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| a geographical and climatic region of Africa, stretching across the north of the continent between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. It is located south of the Sahara desert and north of theSudan. |
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| a millennia-long series of migrations of speakers of the original proto-Bantulanguage group. This group is hypothesized to have originated from modern day Cameroon. A diffusion of language and knowledge spread among neighbouring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage spread to new areas and communities. |
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| a Bantu language spoken by various ethnic groups that inhabit several large stretches of theIndian Ocean coastline from southern Somalia to northern Mozambique, including the Comoros Islands. |
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| the practice of slavery in the Arab World, mainly West Asia, North Africa, East Africa and certain parts of Europe during their period of domination by Arab leaders. The trade was focused on the slave markets of the Middle East and North Africa. |
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| the Orthodox Christian Church of Russia, is a body of Christians who constitute an autocephalousEastern Orthodox Church under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Moscow, in communion with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches. |
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| a frequent component of major domestic political or religious changes. It is thus generally distinguished from the destruction by one culture of the images of another, for example by the Spanish in their American conquests. |
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Orthodox Christian Church
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| in English-speaking countries as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the world's second largest Christian communion, estimated to number 225 million members. It is considered by its adherents to be the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christand his Apostles almost 2,000 years ago. |
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| Chinese sailboat design dating from ancient times and still in use today. Junks were originally developed during the Han Dynasty (220 BC–200 AD) and were used as ocean-going vessels as early as the 2nd century AD. |
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| the linguistic assimilation or cultural assimilation of terms and concepts of the language and culture of China. In linguistics, the term is used narrowly to refer to transliteration, and in this regard "Sinicization" is parallel toRomanization. |
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| a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate. Known in Chinese as "Huo Yao" , it is one of the Four Great Inventions of ancient China. |
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| the best known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Pasteurella pestis). It belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The term "bubonic plague" was often used synonymously for plague, but it does in fact refer specifically to an infection that enters through the skin and travels through the lymphatics, as is often seen in flea-borne infections. |
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| a set of doctrines established by Emperor Kōtoku in the year 646. They were written shortly after the death of Prince Shōtoku, and the defeat of the Soga clan, uniting Japan. Crown Prince Naka no , Nakatomi no Kamatari, and Emperor Kōtoku jointly embarked on the details of the Reforms. |
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| Taira was a hereditary clan name bestowed by the emperors of theHeian Period to certain ex-members of the imperial family when they became subjects. |
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| a flooded parcel of arable land used for growing rice and other semiaquatic crops. Rice can also be grown in dry-fields, but from the twentieth century paddy field agriculture became the dominant form of growing rice. Paddy fields are a typical feature of rice-growing countries of east, south and southeast Asia. |
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Indian Ocean trade network*
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Mongols prized their commercial and trade relationships with neighboring economies and this policy they continued during the process of their conquests and during the expansion of their empire. All merchants and ambassadors, having proper documentation and authorization, traveling through their realms were protected. This greatly increased overland trade.
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| the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. |
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