Environment

All living things and non-living things around us.

Society

Humans and their systems of culture, politics, and economic exchange that govern interrelationships.

Defining Environmental Problems

Scientific evidence, public awareness, perceptions, values.

Environmentalism

Movement dedicated to protecting the natural world and humans that depend on the natural world.

(began in 60s/70s)

Cornucopians

Do not believe in limits and think that we will always have enough resources.

Prometheans

Have unlimited confidence in human ability to use technology to overcome any problems.

Survivalists

Believe there are limits to growth and we are running out of resources and must change.

Cassandras

Give warnings of impeding harm or doom that is often dismissed or ignored.

Sustainability

To satisfy the needs of people and the ecosystem today and in the future.

Exponentional Growth

Increasingly accelerated and compounded growth

(Population Growth)

Carrying Capacity

Theoretical limit of population that a system can sustain.

Thomas Malthus

Principle of Population (1789)

predicted inability to sustain carrying capacity, believed in more restraint and ending aid to the poor

Neo-Malthusianism

At this rate we will overshoot carrying capacity. Population makes environmental problems worse, but other factors are at play.

I=PAT

Impact = Population x Affluence (how we use resources) x Technology

Boserup Theory

More people will result in more technological advances/innovation (Cornucopians and Prometheans). "Necessity is the mother of invention."

Induced Intensification

Agricultural demands for foods leads to technological innovation resulting in the production of more food on the same land.

Green Revolution

Technological innovations that drastically increased the world agricultural yield with chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides.

(Health cost, water contaminants, fossil fuel to produce, hurts animals)

Environmental Kuznets Curve

Environmental impacts rise during development and fall after an economy matures.

Demographic Transition Model

As nations develop, death rates go down first, then birth rates. (May not fit developing countries)

Ecological Footprint

Total amount of productive land and water to produce material and consume waste.

(carbon, food, housing, goods/services)

Market

System that allows buyers and sellers to trade or exchange goods, services, and information

Free Market

Prices and wages are determined by unrestricted competition between businesses without government regulation.

"The Bet:" Neomalthusians vs. prometheans

Ehlrich--population will cause scarcity

Simon--technology will save us

Rare metal prices all went down

(Simon was right)

Market Response Model

A scarcity emerges, then the resources increases in price, leading to:

less consumption, increased supply (more found), or find substitions

Jevon's Paradox

Counterintuitive observation rooted in economic theory: 

technology increases efficiency, which leads to increased consumption

Externality

Spillover of cost/benefit (as where industrial activity at a plant leads to pollution off site) that must be paid for by someone else.

Coase Theorem

Externalities most efficiently controlled through contracts and bargaining between parties.

Market Failure

Production and exchange of goods and services is not efficient. Mismatch between theory and real world.

(Monopoly and Monospony)

Green Taxes

tax harmful activity

Incentives

rebates, cost-share, discounts

(reward good behavior)

Permit Trading

Create market and permits for harmful activity to reduce impacts.

Cap-And-Trade

Cap--total limit

Permits issued and can be traded

Firms needing to emit more may buy shares

Creates hot spots.

Green Washing

Exaggerated or false marketing of a good, product, or services as environmentally friendly.

Green Certification

Third party monitors production and confirms that products meet set environmental standards.

Contingent Valuation

Uses surveys to determine how much people are willing to pay to protect a resources.

Cost Benefit Analysis

Estimated costs for a proposed action are tolerated and compared to sum of benefits of the action.

(not all values can be compared)

Ecosystem Services

Resources and processes provided by ecosystems that benefit society.

Policy

A formal set of plans and principles to address problems and guide decisions.

Public Policy

Policies made by the government.

Environmental Policy

Has to do with humans and the environment and should include science, ethics, and economics.

Government's goal

Protect people and what they care about

Correct market failure

Protect Resources

Address Free Riders

Free Riders

Some individuals consume more than their share of a common resources or pay less than their fair share of the cost of a common resources.

Governance

Process or power of managing, leading, and administering

(corporations, groups of Corps., NGOs)

Neoliberals

Since 1980s, small government, shrinking government, freedom from government.

Prisoner's Dilemma

Individuals making decisions in pursuit of their own interest tend to create collective outcomes that are non-optimal for everyone.

Hardin's herdsman example

In a pasture, the herdsman will each continue to add more sheep to their herds, as it is highly beneficial to each individual. This will lead to the overuse and destruction of the pasture.

Tragedy of the Commons

Don't know what others will do, so users prioritize short term gain, despite ruin to all.

Institutions

Rules and norms that govern collective action in order to benefit all users.

Culture

Knowledge, beliefs, values and ways of life shared by a society.

Worldview

What exists and how things work.

Values

What is important, what we believe in.

Dominion Theory

Genesis, dominion: humans are the pinnacle of creation, as such humans are granted ehtical free rein to use nature in any way deemed beneficial.

Stewardship

Take responsibility for the property or fate of others; stewardship of the land and natural resources.

Ethics

Branch of philosophy involving study of good and bad, right and wrong.

Ethical Standards

Criteria that help distinguish right from wrong.

Environmental Ethics

Applies ethical standards to relationships between humans and non-humans.

Morals

Concerned with principles of right and wrong behavior and goodness or badness of human character.

Anthropocentrism

Human-centered view of the world and the environment.

Dualism

Humans and nature are separate. Nature is here for humans' use--to be conquered. Non-humans do not have rights.

Factory Farms

Intensive animal raising, Max production: industrial efficiency, Water/Air pollution, Animal welfare not a concern, Non-nursing non-pregnant sow=wasted capital.

(Economics most important)

Utilitarianism

Ethical standpoint: value of nature determined by value to humans.

Preservation

Protecting natural pristine state of nature.

(John Muir)

Conservation

Using natural resources responsibly. Managing a resources to sustain its productivity over time, through scientific management.

(Gifford Pinchot)

Wilderness

A natural parcel of land, more or less unaffected by humans 

(social construction?)

Holism

Any theory that holds that a whole ecosystem is more than the sum of its parts.

The Land Ethic

(not an "orange" term)

A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.

Biocentrism

Values living things or the living world in general apart from human use.

Speciesism

Assigning different values or rights based on species.

Ecocentrism

Ecological concerns should, over and above human priorities, be central to decisions about right and wrong.

Animal Liberation

Social movement aims to free all animals from use by humans for any purpose.

(Peter Singer)

Deep Ecology

Philosophy of environmental ethics that argues for deeper, more ecologically- informed view, biocentric equality.

Intrinsic Value

Value of a natural object in and for itself, as an end rather than a means

(independent of humans)

Ecofeminism

Belief that male-dominated society is the root cause of social and environmental problems.

(female view tends to be more holistic)

Environmental Justice

Focuses on fair, equitable treatment of all people with respect to environmental policy and practice.

LULU

Locally Unwanted Land Use

NIMBY

Not In My BackYard

Naturalistic Fallacy

Using ecological findings to figure out what is good therefore right: an ethical "ought" from a natural "is."

Scientism

Uncritical reliance on natural sciences as basis for social decision-making and ethical judgements.

Social Ecology

Environmental problems rooted in social structures and relationships.

Pragmatism

Consideres real world consequences and effects to be constituent components of truth and reality. 

(Environmentalists have created too many unnecessary fields...)

Hazard

Object, condition, or process that threatens individuals or society in terms of production or reproduction.

Risk

The known or estimated probability that a hazard-related decision will have a negative consequence.

Environmental Health

Assess environmental factors that influence human health and quality of life.

4 major types of Hazards

(not orange word)

Physical

Biological

Chemical

Cultural

Uncertainty

Degree to which the outcomes of a decision or situation are unknown.

Risk Perception

The tendency of people to evaluate the hazardousness of a situation or decision in not always rational terms, depending on individual biases, culture, or human tendencies.

Most/Least Feared Events

(not orange term)

Most: involuntary, uncontrollable, catastrophic

Least: Immediate effects, voluntary/individual choices

Affect

Emotions or unconscious responses to the world that influence decision-making.

Cultural Theory

Group ideology and social norms impact individual risk perceptions.

Science

Systematic activity to better understand the world. Scientific method involves hypothesis testing, measuring evidence, and emiricism (knowledge through evidence)

Conflict of Interest

When scientists are involved in multiple interests and one can corrupt the other

(i.e. scince + $$$)

Carcinogenic

Cancer causing

Mutagens

Mutate DNA

Teratogens

Impact embryo, cause birth defects

Neurotoxins

assault the nervous system

Endocrine Disrupters

Affect hormones and development and/or reproduction

Perflourtinated Compounds (PFCs)

Used to make stain or stick resistant materials. Very persistant. cause cancer in animals, stay in the body up to 4 years.

PBDEs

Flame retardants found in house dust, indoor air. Cause thyroid abnormalities and birth defects.

Organochlorides

Mostly banned in the US, but highly persistant

(i.e. DDT)

Organophosphates

Commonly used today in apples, bell peppers, grapes, nectarines, peaches, strawberries, pears.

Affect the nervous system.

Phthalates

Used to make plastic soft (rubber duckies)

Cause reproductive, asthma, liver/kidney problems.

EU banned use in cosmetics and toys.

PCBs

Cooling fuel, electrical equipment.

Cause cancer, banned in 1977.

Very persistant, contaminated water and fish.

Heavy Metals

Mercury: used in lightbulbs, thermometers, fillings 

Arsenic: pesticides, paints

Lead: paint, pipes, hair dye, cosmetics

Inhibit brain development, kidney damage, cancer

Precautionary Principle

A policy in which precaution should be taken even when full information is lacking.

Political Economy

A social science dealing with political policies and economic processes, their interrelations, and influence on society. (Political/economic forces that cause social problems)

Socialism

Theory or system of social organization where means of production and distribution are shared by the community as a whole.

Labor

The act of altering nature and bringing it into the process of making the human world.

Commodity

Object of economic value, valued generically rather than as a specific object made for exchange.

(differs from use value--made to use, not to exchange)

Surplus Value

Value produced by underpaying labor or over extracting from the environment, which is accumulated by capitalists. 

Primitive Accumulation

Direct appropriation by capitalists of natural resources or goods from communities that historically tend to hold them collectively.

Accumulation

Collecting wealth, the central driving imperative of capitalist economy. 

Treadmill of Production

The economy as an accelterating treadmill, constantly racing to keep itself in place, consuming ever more labor and materials to survive.

Overaccumulation

A condition where wealth becomes concentrated in very few hands, causing economic slowdown and potential crisis.

1st Contradiction of Capitalism

Capitalism will undermine economic conditions for its own perpetuation, through overproduction of commodities, reduction of wages for would be consumers.

2nd Contradiction of Capitalism

Tendency for capitalism to undermine conditions for its own perpetuation, through degredation of natural resources or harm/mistreatment of workers.

Withdrawls

extracting resources for production

Additions

depositing pollution or waste

Competition drives...
(not an orange term) 

Withdrawls without renewal

Additions without treatment

Spatial Fix

Tendency of capitalism to temporarily solve its inevitable periodic crises by establishing new markets, new resources, and new sites of production in other places.

Production of Nature

The idea that the environment, if ever it was separate, is now a product of human industry or activity.

Commodification

Transformation of an object or resources from something valued in and of itself, to something valued for exchange. 

(exchange value over use value)

False commodities

(not an orange term)

Nature and labor

--risky to undermine the bases of production

Social Construction

Any category, condition, or thing that exists or is understood to have certain characteristics because people socially agree that it does.

Constructivist Perspective

Emphasizing the significance of concepts, ideologies, and social practice to our understanding and making of the world.

Types of Constructivism/Realists

(not an orange term)

Extreme Const.: everything is socially constructed

Moderate Const.: aware of how we create knowledge

Extreme Realist: what we know=what is

Critical Realist: there is reality, but be aware of its construction

Relativism

Holds that all beliefs, truths, and facts are at root products of the paticular set of social relations from which they arise. 

Co-production

Humans and non-humans produce and change one another through their interaction and interrelation.

Wilderness

A parcel of land, more or less unaffected by human forces.

Before Civil War: savage

After Civil War: frontier, sublime

"Nature"

The natural world, everything that exists that is not a product of human activity.

(Quotations because of unclear uses.)

Race

A set of imaginary categories distinguishing types of people based on skin color or body morphology.

(no genetic basis, tool for discrimination)

Discourse 

At root, written and spoken communication are power-embedded constructions that partially make the world we live in.

Narrative

A story with a beginning and end

(i.e. tragedy of commons)

Concept

A single idea, usually captured in a word or phrase

(i.e. carrying capacity)

Ideologies

Normative, value-laden world views that spell out how the world is and how it ought to be.

Signifying Practices

Modes and methods of representation for communicating ideologies

Discourses are made up of...

(not an orange term)

Narratives

Concepts

Ideologies

Signifying Practices

Greenhouse Effect

Characteristic of earth's atmosphere based on presence of important gases including water vapor and carbon dioxide to trap and retain heat, leading to temperatures that sustain life.

Command and Control

Forms of regulation enacted by government laws and agencies to enforce rules, including things like regulated limits on pollution, fuel efficiency standards

(contrasts market approach)

Carbon Offsets

Certificate representing reduction of 1 metric ton of carbon dioxide emissions, the principle cause of global warming.

Succession

Stages of growth: primary, secondary, climax community

Disturbance

Disrupting event or shock

Deforestation

Clearing and loss of forests

(soil, biodiversity, carbon sequestration losses)

Forest Transition Theory

More development will bring economic change and less deforestation.

Biodiversity

Total variability and variety of life forms in a region, ecosystem, or around the world; measure of health of an environmental system.

Extinction

Species ceases to exist

Extirpation

Disappearance of a population from an area.

Resilience

Ability to bounce back after a disturbance.

Rivet Hypothesis

Metaphor of an airplane held together with rivets. For most, it wouldn't matter if 1 came out. But if you take out more, the chance of falling apart increases.

Biophilia

Connections that humans subconsciously seek with the rest of life.

Species-Centered Conservation

(not an orange term)

Endangered Species Act

Single Species Approaches like the California Condors

Conservation Biology

Field dedicated to exploring and maintaining biodiversity.

Rewilding

Restoration of ecological function and processes to ecosystems--often involves reintroducing species.

Specialization

Grow 1 or 2 things.

(Caused by new technology and commodity programs)

Monocropping

1 crop grown over vast areas

Intensification

Growing more food on the same area of land.

Concentration

From many to few: fewer, larger farms.

Metabolic Rift

Separations of cattle and cropping, resulting in nutrient pollution and reliance on fertilizer.

The Dead Zone

In the gulf of Mexico, huge dump of fertilizers leaks into the water, excess nutrients cause algae blooms, then their death creates the dead zone (every spring)

Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)

Greenhouse gas, most comes from fertilizers.

Food Deserts

Lack of grocery stores, only conveniance stores or fast food. Low income areas.