Term
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Definition
The belief of religious fatalism, that the earth is just a temporary place of exile before you reach heaven
medieval fatalism |
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Term
| Theory of cultural diffusion |
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Definition
| The belief that the Western culture diffuses to the rest of the world in order for them to reach modernity. Western civilizations are more superior and more modernized. They influence the rest of the world to also adapt and enhance themselves. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that cultures never move in time. The West is constantly progressing while the rest of the world (the East) merely pivots in place without moving ahead in time. Western places are where all the historical events occur. The East can only move ahead in time if they start to adopt Western ideas and institutions. |
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Definition
| Establishment of the largest empire in terms of area of land. It increased the networks of all cultures by promoting and thriving in trade. It brought the world together by linking economies together. |
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Term
| Case for pre-modern capitalism |
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Definition
- Had a tendency of local governments to provide currency and credit to facilitate economic transactions
- Combine capital from many people to minimize risk
- People thought of more efficient methods to trade
- Entrepreneurs appear for the first time
- Items such as silk in China and cotton from India were considered to be luxury goods
- Large-scale export
- People openly sought out for new avenues to make more profit. People who were willing to take risks would make more money |
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Term
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Definition
| There was shift from polycentric globalism to European hegemony |
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Term
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Definition
| Every new phenomenon is conditioned by earlier developments |
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Term
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Definition
| Independent local developments collide or intersect to shape the course of history |
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Term
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Definition
- Equestrian skills: skilled riders and users of the composite bow; few had engaged in hand-to-hand combat
- No shame in retreat: They felt no shame in retreating as opposed to other Asian mentalities. In fact, they often used the tactic of retreat to draw the enemy into a specified region and then surprise attack them
- Terror as a strategy of warfare: They often killed and even used human civilians for shields out in the battlefield. This fear left many cities to surrender before they even started attacking. |
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Term
| Impact of medieval climate change |
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Definition
| There was a significant warming trend from 800-1200 C.E. This allowed for settlements in the north and at higher elevations. Places that couldn’t support agriculture before now could support it. Steppe nomads witnessed a population expansion. It also narrowed the “buffer zone” between nomads and farmers. As a result, this brought major tensions on the global frontier. |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurred from 11th to 12th centuries. In Western Asia, Seljurk Turks went into the Iranian heartland. The Manchurians, Khitans, and then the Jurchens conquered northern China |
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Term
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Definition
| The aggressive Mongol leader responsible for the increase and prosperity of the Mongol empire at its height. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nomads occasionally threatened sedentary societies with conquest. They did not want to rule them but only threatened as a way of extracting their wealth and resources. |
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Term
| Jurchens in northern China |
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Definition
| Established the Jin (Chin) Dynasty in northern China. They were unwilling to give up their resources to the Mongols because they believed that they were stronger. This led to the Mongol-Jurchen conflict which left northern China devastated. |
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Term
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Definition
| Leader of the Turkish nomads who were also unwilling to make concessions to the Mongols. Ordered a Mongol official/ambassador be killed. He also decided to stop supplying resources and troops for the Mongols. For this very reason of defiance, a punitive mission was sent by Genghis Khan to destroy the place in 1219. |
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Term
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Definition
| Wanted to turn all of northern China pastureland. Luckily there was a Chinese official who convinced him that it would be stupid and crazy. |
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Term
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Definition
| a tax on farms. Uighurs and Turks were the tax collectors. |
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Term
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Definition
(Political Integration, Cultural Cross- fertilization, Religious pluralism, Economic coherence)
- The Mongol Empire had many subjects of different races.
- Many leaders even implemented Chinese culture and ideas into their policies
- Integrated empire facilitated the spread of religious systems. For example, as far as Eastern China, you would be able to find Christian churches and Muslim temples. It was the Mongol’s interest to promote religious plurality to minimize religious ethnic differences and to alleviate hostilities. |
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Term
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Definition
| Dynasty of China created by Khubilai Khan after he conquered China. It was made up of Mongolia and northern China. Yuan China was the dynamic center of the entire realm, out of the four khanates. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ruler of the Great Khanate in Mongolian heartland and in China. Grandson of Genghis Khan; his power in many ways was accidental. |
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Term
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Definition
- Ilkans in Persia (Hulegu) was located to the west
- The Golden Horde in Russia (Berke) were to the east
- Khanate of Chagatai (original heartland of the Mongols) was in central Asia
- Great Khanate in Mongolia/China (Khubilai) |
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Term
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Definition
| He was supported by the Golden Horde. It was a costly and lengthy campaign. Ilkans supported Khubilai. Khubilai won by cutting off support of resources to the north in order to defeat his enemies. His victory made him realize that in order for him to keep power, he would have to govern the Chinese effectively and efficiently |
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Term
| Office for the Stimulation of Agriculture |
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Definition
| It was created in response to the economic recovery plan set out under Khubilai. It was created to suppor the peasants, abolish tax farming, and give farmers extra incentives like grain. It also prevented Mongols from turning farmland into pastures. |
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Term
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Definition
| Muslim-ran merchant associations. They became the middlemen for caravans; in fact, they funded their use. People gave money to ortakhs and then they gave them out as loans with a small interest. It was effective in shielding the Mongols from being the “bad rat” |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of paper currency was enforced by the government. Anyone coming into the country had to trade in their silver and gold into Mongol paper money that was made out of mulberry bark. Everyone had to accept it as a form of payment. |
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Term
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Definition
| They were typically 25 miles apart from each other. Each station had 200-400 horses to the disposal of the riders. Bells were placed on horses to abolish lag time. One could deliver something at 250 miles a day. Hostels were built next to postal stations for travelers and merchants to sleep. As some of the larger stations, hostels were divided up ethnically. There were ~ 1,400 postal stations total around the time of Khubilai. |
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Term
| Design of Ta-Tu or Cambulac |
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Definition
| Also known as the modern Beijing. Khubilai chose the location in the north because he would be able to keep an eye on the original pastureland and on the farmlands. He was able to find his delicate balance in his identity via the construction of his palace located in the capital. It contained a huge backyard garden and large luxurious statues like the phoenix and dragon. |
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Term
| Mongol hierarchy of ethnic classes |
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Definition
- Mongols: political and social elite
- Semuren: Mongol allies such as the Turks, Syrians, and Persians
- Hanren: The northern Chinese, physically they looked more like the Mongols
- Nanren: Southern Chinese, which had 80% of the population. They had more distinguished features (shorter and darker, racially discriminated) |
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Term
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Definition
| He was the finance czar from 1262 to 1282. His task was to increase revenue of the state because the khan had many public projects that needed funding and because he needed money for war. Ahmad did such a good job that he incurred the wrath of many Chinese government officials. He also did a very good job of setting up new tax payers that taxes increased by a hundred fold. Ended up being assassinated by court counterparts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Anointed to be the governor of strategic territory of Yunnan. This was important because a Muslim governor could facilitate migration of Muslims coming in from the west. He was a competent governor who introduced irrigation to the region, civilized the educated the population, did not impose his Muslim beliefs on the natives, and sinicized the natives using Confucianism. |
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Term
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Definition
| that was governed by Saiyid Ajall. It was introverted because Ajall took over. |
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Term
| Muslim threats in Mongol realm |
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Definition
| After a while, the emperors of Yuan China found Muslims to be a threat because of the large-scale religious conversions. Also, under the influence of Chinese government officials, emperors found Muslims to be threatening. |
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Term
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Definition
| There was prohibition of circumcision and cruel method of slaughtering sheep. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ruled China from 1402-1424 |
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Term
| 1281 Mongol Invasion of Japan |
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Definition
| During the time of Mongol’s expansionary campaigns |
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Term
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Definition
Size
- 300 ships,
- 28,000 soldiers/sailors (the size of some land armies in nearby countries).
- The largest was 400 feet in length, weighed as much as 3000 tons and had 9 masts
Purposes
- Send them out on expeditions
- Had a total of 7 grand expeditions, 6 of them during the reign of Yongle
- Convenient excuse at the time. They “needed” to explore the region and find an imposed emperor.
- They also wanted to increase Chinese presence in the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions
o Military: securing trade routes and flow of tributes to China. Had to suppress piracy and their activities.
o Cultural: extending cultural embassies meant increasing Ming Dynasty’s
o Commercial: demonstrating the generosity and wealth of the Ming. They didn’t need anything else but only traded with people as an act of generosity.
o Political: extending China’s tributary system. They didn’t want to annex territories but just to have influence over local politics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Because Mongol Empire was so imposing, other empires would bring pay tribute to them just so that they wouldn’t attack them. Pay and protect system. |
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Term
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Definition
| in one of the expeditions, giraffes were brought back and the Chinese thought they were mythical creatures because of their long necks |
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Term
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Definition
| became an admiral for the Chinese government |
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Term
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Definition
| he was captured and brought back to China, executed shortly after to show everyone else just how much power they had over the pirates. |
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Term
| “Carrot and Stick” foreign policy |
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Definition
- “Carrot” is opportunity for trade
- “Stick” are the troops. All the ships were armed with troops and cannons.
- Mongols were able to acquire 47 tributary states from the 7 expeditions |
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Term
| Admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho) |
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Definition
- Arab and Mongol ancestry
- Family lived in Yunnan province
- He wanted to go to Mecca for the sacred pilgrimage but couldn’t because he was a eunuch |
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Term
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Definition
| the 7th and last expedition was carried out during the reign of this emperor. |
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Term
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Definition
| very brief time where China reasserted the expansionist policy. The expeditions were stopped and the lumber from these ships were all given to people of a particular region to be used for firewood to overcome the harsh winter. |
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Term
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Definition
| this was a crucial precondition for the Portuguese entry into China. China withdrew from the Indian Ocean network, which created a huge power vacuum. This allowed for the Portuguese to create their monopolies. |
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Term
| Pre-5th century Trans-Saharan Trade |
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Definition
| Mainly, a giant salt trade market. Packs of oxen carrying salt were taken through the desert. It was slow and tedious for the traders. Oxen were easily worn out. |
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Term
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Definition
| discovery of camels for transportation by the Berber nomads. Traveled twice as far and twice as fast as the oxen. Averaged 20 miles a day. Required little water, and had protective evolutions (such as closed nostrils, eyelid coverings). |
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Term
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Definition
| first to domesticate camels. Nomads of the Sahara. |
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Term
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Definition
| stretch of land through the heart of Africa. To the north is the Sahara, and to the south is the savannah. Many of the African empires were founded along this belt. |
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Term
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Definition
| had a strategic location of being close to the Berbers; access to horses lead from a military to a political advantage. |
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Term
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Definition
| dual layout of city. Half for Muslims, other half for the king. Paganism was still occurring within the city. By converting pagans to Islam, it allowed them access into city social life and more commercial freedom. |
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Term
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Definition
| the founders of the ancient empire of Ghana. First group of people to embrace Islam in sub-Saharan Africa. |
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Term
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Definition
| important to the emergence of the Trans-Saharan trade, salt was an important commodity. |
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Term
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Definition
| miners of the fields were not pushed to convert to Islam due to the wealth they brought in for Ghana. |
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Term
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Definition
| fundamentalist Islamic movement in North Africa. Came out after the decline of Ghana. |
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Term
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Definition
| from 13th to the 14th century. Was founded by the Almoravids. |
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Term
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Definition
| chiefs of clan converted to Islam as early as the 11th century. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sundyata (ruler; 1230-1255) set up the Mali Empire capital at this city. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1312-1337) Ruler of the Mali Empire, Interested in exploring the seas. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage was an example of extravagance exhibited by the Mali Empire. Musa had caravans of gold and along his journey to Mecca would demonstrate the Islamic ideal of piety and generosity by giving it away to others. |
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Term
| Cultural Flowering in Timbuktu |
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Definition
| Mansa Musa wanted Timbuktu to be the center of learning and knowledge. He returned from his pilgrimage with scholars, architects, poets, and scientists from the Islamic realm. |
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Term
| Catalan map of Africa, 1375 |
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Definition
| Islamic cartographers, demonstrated the incredible wealth found in Africa. |
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Term
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Definition
| Abu Abdulla Muhammad Ibn-Battuta in Tangiers, Morocco (1304 CE). Trained as an Islamic scholar and occasionally served as a judge, a qadi. Perfect person to judge the Islamic law. |
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Term
| Implications of Dar al-Islam |
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Definition
| allowed religious tolerance of servants to Ibn-Battuta. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ottomans used Islamic judges, qadis, as third party oversight on provincial administration (timar system) to curb corruption |
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Term
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Definition
| the divine law of Islam dealing with the interactions of family, economics, business, social issues, and others. Static, not meant to change. |
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Term
| Rise of the Ottoman Turks |
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Definition
| Humble beginnings as a buffer state between Seljunks and the Byzantines in the 13th century. |
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Term
| Seljuk-Byzantine conflict |
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Definition
| Osman Bay exploited rivalry as a mercenary for both empires. Built an extensive power base and firstly defeated the Seljuks, then the Byzantine. |
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Term
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Definition
| led Ottoman conquest through Asia-minor and the Balkans (Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria) and conquered Constantinople. Pushed far into Europe, stopping against the Hena empire. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mehmet II’s conquest led to the sacking of Constantinople and renaming of the city to Istanbul. |
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Term
| Suleiman the Magnificent (Law-giver) |
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Definition
| changed the laws and organization of the Ottoman Empire to adapt legislation to a rapidly changing and expanding empire. He was careful not to touch the basics of Islam but only extend his power where he could, mainly, in criminal justice and taxation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ottoman’s European rivals in Europe, under Suleyman the Magnificent’s reign subjected the Habsburgs to constant warfare – including the prized city of Vienna - to a terrifying siege. |
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Term
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Definition
| former pirate was made the leader of the naval fleets. Very knowledgeable of the sea routes. Managed to bring the Red Sea, Atlantic, Persian Gulf, and Mediterranean under his control. |
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Term
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Definition
| made several observations about Suleiman’s bureaucracy in 1529. Noticed an anti-aristocratic ethos. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ottomans borrowed upon the Persian elaboration of the Islamic social order to reward people whose loyalty and allegiance are to the sultan. |
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Term
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Definition
| System of civil service allowing people social mobility within the Ottoman Empire. Trained slave soldiers. |
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Term
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Definition
| the Ottoman Empire trained boys who were taken from Christian families, converted to Islam, and enrolled in one of the four royal institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military (Janissary). |
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Term
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Definition
Origin – Hired slave soldiers to defend the sultanate. Believed in that by raising lower class to work for the sultan, through providing luxury, they would be personally loyal to him.
Inner vs. Outer Service – Inner service Janissaries were the sultan’s closest confidences. Noted to have unquestionable loyalty to the sultan and a high physical prowess. Outer service Janissaries were sent out as governors of provinces.
Grand Vizier – 2nd in position to the sultanate. Highest social status. Not always of Muslim origin. |
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Term
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Definition
| administrative and tax collecting grants handed out by the sultan. Charged with administrative duties upon collecting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Villages of timar holders. |
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Term
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Definition
| referring to the pyramid of power in the Ottoman Timar System. Sultan is the top, then the sanjaks, then the timar holders. |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to the local religious communities in the Ottoman Empire. Religious and ethnic backgrounds were not a prerequisite for timar grants. Protected dhimmi subjects and held high religious tolerance. |
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Term
| Ottoman policy towards dhimmis |
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Definition
| People of the book -> dhimmis, Christians and Jews mainly. Received protection and tolerance to practice and preach within the Ottoman Empire. |
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Term
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Definition
| – the term used to describe the higher class within the Ottoman empire. Namely, those who were in the Janissary Corps, or some other form of administrative nobility. This included any clergy and court officials as well. |
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Term
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Definition
| contrast to the Askeri. This was the term used to describe the lower tax paying class within the Ottoman empire. |
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Term
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Definition
| of the Safavid Empire at age 14. At 18, led a group of people to capture the city of Tabuites in Iran. |
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Term
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Definition
| the adopted military wing of Sufi Islam by Ismail. This was the mindset by which his army conquered. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ismail descended from a 13th century Sufi leader – Safi al-Din who was part of a sect called the Twelvers. They believed in Ismail as the return of the 12th Mahdi, “the guided one”. Sufi belief extends to the mystical transmission of the souls of past prophets. |
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Term
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Definition
| the belief in the 12 Imams, and that the 12th Imam went into hiding and will reveal himself to save Islam. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prophets of Sufi Islam – divinely chosen. All the past 11 believed in the coming of the 12th. |
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Term
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Definition
| sent a letter to Ismail declaring military action would be sent against the Safavid empire since they intended to spread Sufi/Shi’ite ideology. Ottoman’s cast themselves as the defender of true Islam. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1514) Decisive battle in which the Ottoman empire won over the Safavid Empire. |
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Term
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Definition
| Safavid consolidation under Shah Abbas I. Conquered the Uzbeks to the east and kept stalemates against the Ottoman empire. |
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Term
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Definition
| Shah Abbas I as a ruler in the Machiavellian vein. Pragmatic – not ideologue. Always knew what the people thought of him. Well versed in theology. Mingled openly with the public and was feared. |
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Term
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Definition
| new capital of the Safavids. Promoted as a cosmopolitan center of trade. Secured all trade routes within the Safavid realm and expelled all Portuguese and allowed British in. |
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Term
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Definition
| allowed into new capital Isfahan to do trade after expelling the Portugeuse. |
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Term
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Definition
| the belief that the Sufi Madhi would soon reveal himself and take the Sufi blood line. Nuqtavi spiritual authority would become political state / sovereignity. Executed upon the angering of Shah Abbas I. |
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Term
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Definition
| the Qizilbash aligned themselves with a new Sufi charismatic teacher, Darvish Khusraw. He conversed openly with Shah Abbas I about the Nuqtavi Sufi ideology and leaked the information to him, angering him. |
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Term
| Brief ascension of Tarkishduz |
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Definition
| belief in the upcoming apocalypse of Safavid Empire. Spread nuqtavi Sufism. Allowed to sit on throne for 3 days to show the prophecy was false, then executed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Demonstrated changes in Safavid policies, religion shifted from radicalism to conservative ideology in order to establish stability in a sedentary society. |
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Term
| Origin of the term “Hindu” |
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Definition
| Muslim prejudice term for the Hinduism religion. Found the religion keeping to itself to be interesting. Believed the practioneers to be naturally aloof. |
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Term
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Definition
| First prominent Muslim foundation in North India. |
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Term
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Definition
| first sultan in North India. (1293-1316; ruled from). Policy of oppressing Hindu subjects through 50% taxation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refering to the 50% taxation placed on non-Muslims, but in this case, on Hindus. |
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Term
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Definition
| evidence of repressive policy of the sultan towards Hindus, wanted to empty the city of Delhi – refugees migrated to Dawlat Abad |
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Term
| Desecration of Hindu temples |
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Definition
| policy of desecration under Ala-ud-din Khalji. Built Muslim mosques over them. Inside the mosque it was required to step on the Hindu deities before entering. |
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Term
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Definition
| Timurid Prince who led the founding of the Mughal Dynasty in the early 1500s. Defeated the last of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526. |
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Term
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Definition
| Babur, built an empire that stretched from Kabul through the Punjab to the borders of Bengal. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1556-1605) ruled at height of the Mugul reign. Had an inclusive method of governing – gave autonomy to Hindu princes and chieftain and abolished the jizya taxation. |
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Term
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Definition
| merging of ethical foundations of Islam, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism. Intention unclear, could be to win political support or spawn a religious movement. Angered the Muslim advisors. Akbar openly conversed with other religious figureheads, such as clergy. |
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Term
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Definition
| wrote opposition to Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance. |
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Term
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Definition
| grandson of Akbar. Reverted to the jizya and heavy taxation and desecration of Hindu temples. |
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Term
| Clerical reactions to technology |
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Definition
| Ottoman sunni ulama opposed modernization and innovations. Likewise, Safavids increased dependence on conservative Sh’ia Imams ~ which increased intolerance of Sunnis and Sufis. |
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Term
| Restrictions on the printing press |
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Definition
| Printing press was banned within the Ottoman empire out of a fear for an educated middle class. |
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Term
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Definition
| name of the several Ottoman cavalry groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| Eclipsed by the advent of synchronized firepower. Ottomons relied on Sipahis for their cavalry and the Safavids relied on the Qizilbash. The Mughals relied on the tribal nobility of central Asian stock. |
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Term
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Definition
| Became the new dominant battlefield deployment. Completely demolished the strength of the heavy cavalry. |
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Term
| Imperial center vs. Military aristocracy |
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Definition
| once expansion stopped, resources to sustain the empire dropped. Ottoman timar system broken down. Rulers relied on heavy taxation. Lead to the ultimate collapse of the three Islamic empires. |
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