Voter turnout

declined in the 20^{th century. A majority of voters do not vote in most elections.}

picks only a select handful of cases on appeal. Most cases appealed to the SC are not accepted. It takes 4 justices (of 9) to accept a case.

Amicus briefs

(friend of the court) are used by special interest groups to influence the court.

Fiscal and cooperative federalism

involves local, state and national governments working together to do a project (ex. Highway) or program (Medicaid) with much of the funding coming from the national government.

Electoral votes

based on the # of senators and representatives from each state. Larger states have more electoral votes. Presidential campaigns usually focus on states with the largest populations.

The Commerce Clause

(Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce) was used extensively to increase the power of the national government in the 20^{th century.}

Party organization

is fragmented --- consists of separate local, state and national party organizations --- very decentralized.

Appointing Supreme Court judges who serve for life

gives presidents long-term influence beyond their time in office.

The amendment process

a reflection of federalism --- the national government (Congress) proposes amendments and the states have the power to ratify.

Congressional district boundaries

drawn by state legislatures after each decennial census

Gerrymandering

process of drawing congressional district lines to favor one party over the other.

First Amendment

guarantees the right to petition government for a redress of grievances.

Establishment Clause of the First Amendment

prohibits Congress from setting up a church. It has been interpreted to mean a wall of separation exists between church and state

Lobbyists

influence legislators mainly by providing technical information and expertise in their specified policy area.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

greatly enhanced voter registration of Black Americans in the South

Miranda v. Arizona, 1966,

required police officers to advise accused individuals of the rights --- to remain silent, to a lawyer, etc. ---the warning was aimed at preventing forced confessions in police interrogations

President’s constitutional roles are

chief executive, chief diplomat, commander in chief, legislative leader, and chief of state. Party leader is NOT a constitutional role --- the Constitution does not even mention political parties.

In our system of checks and balances

Senate must ratify treaties made by the President and the Senate must approve presidential appointments.

As commander in chief

Federalist #10,

Madison argued that factions were undesirable but inevitable due to the nature of man (various and unequal division of property). He argued that the effects of factions can be controlled by creating a large republic. Majority factions were considered the greatest threat to liberty

Unfunded mandates:

the national government requires a state or local government to provide a service without providing funding to pay for it

Voting Rights Act

requires state and local governments to provide ballots and voting materials in minority languages if the minority represents a significant portion of the population in a state or local area

Entitlements

parts of the budget that represent "uncontrollable" or mandatory spending --- if people qualify for the benefit, it must be paid by Congress

Incorporation

the process by which the Courts have applied most of the Bill of Rights to the states on the basis of the 14^{th Amendment’s due process clause. The Bill of Rights was initially intended to limit the national government only; however, through the incorporation process, the 14th Amendment extends the protections of the Bill of Rights against the states.}

political socialization

the process of acquiring our political beliefs and behaviors and passing them from one generation to another

family is the main agent

Roe v. Wade, 1973,

Supreme Court ruled that women have a right to an abortion based on a right to privacy broadly interpreted in the Constitution.

Articles of Confederation

The Constitution increased the power of the national government (especially economic powers) as a result of the weakness

The doctrine of original intent

the belief that the Supreme Court should interpret the Constitution based on the meaning intended by the framers (those who wrote the Constitution).

A key difference between the House of Representatives and the Senate

debate in the House is restricted (large-size increases the need for stricter rules) and debate in the Senate is based on more informal understandings --- a filibuster can occur in the Senate but not in the House.

Congressional checks on the federal courts include

impeachment/trial of judges; passing new laws to clarify congressional intent; the ability to propose amendments. Courts lack enforcement power and are dependent on local, state and national executives to enforce their decisions.

Executive orders

rules or regulations issued by the President. They do not have to be approved by Congress and can sometimes cause controversy when implemented. (Ex. Executive orders were used to desegregate the armed forces and to introduce affirmative action into the federal workforce.)

Key values in American political culture include:

individualism, economic and political freedom, and political and social equality. Americans DO NOT place a high priority on economic equality

Critical elections

occur rarely and typically usher in a new era of party dominance due to a realignment of voter groups in the electorate

As income increases,

the tendency to be conservative / Republican increases.

primary

closed primary

requires voters to identify their party preference in advance and does not allow split-ticket voting.

PACS

the financial arms of special interest groups. They raise campaign funds to support candidates who favor the policy interests of the PAC.

President is elected

conference committee

used to reconcile differences in House and Senate versions of a bill

Federal judges serve

for good behavior (life terms) to ensure the independence of the judges from politics

Presidents attempt

to influence the Supreme Court by appointing judges with similar beliefs and ideologies

The First Amendment protects

the right to Freedom of Speech, including the use of symbols as well as words. Some types of speech are NOT protected by the First Amendment --- such as obscenity, libel, slander, words that present a clear and present danger, etc

The 1954 Brown v. Topeka, Kansas, Board of Education

court decision to desegregate the schools significantly expanded the civil rights of Black Americans in the 1950s.

Standing committees of Congress

are permanent subject matter committees. This is where most of the work of Congress takes place in the legislative process

The Founding Fathers designed Congress

to be cautious and deliberative. Today, the legislative process is lengthy, decentralized, and grid-locked, requiring extensive bargaining and compromise to get things done

The War Powers Resolution

was an attempt to restrict a presidential deployment of troops to 60-90 days unless Congress approves more time.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

prohibited discrimination in public accommodations. It was a major landmark in advancing equality under the law

impeachmen

linkage institutions

they promote democracy by linking people to the political process (government)... example... Political parties, interest groups, and the news media

The Miranda warning

used to protect criminal suspects from unfair police interrogation or forced confessions. It includes the right to remain silent, the right to a lawyer, etc.

10^{th Amendment}

all powers not granted to the national government or denied to the states are reserved to the states and to the people

primary purpose or function of government (according to the founding fathers)

is protection of private property rights

PACs are limited to donating

$5000 to each federal candidate per election cycle. PACs give to candidates to gain access in order to influence the legislative process in favor of the group’s interests.

Divided government

has been a frequent election pattern since 1968. Contributing factors include: decreased party identification and increased independence and split-ticket voting. Divided government contributes to gridlock in policymaking

winner-take-all electoral system

significantly contributed to the maintenance (continuance) of a two-party system

Voter turnout rate

much lower in the U.S. than in most Western democracies. The young are least likely to vote and the elderly are more likely.

Voters in primary elections

are comparatively more affluent (wealthy) and more educated than voters in a general election.

Elite theory

argues that a single wealthy minority dominates policymaking; pluralists argue that many groups compete for power

The Democratic party once dominated

in the "Solid" South; in the 1980s the strength of it has decreased in the South 

Incumbent senators

are less likely to win reelection than incumbent House members. House seats are safer than senate seats; senate races are usually more competitive

Since the 1950s

U.S. citizens have become less trusting of government institutions and leaders