Rough: Has ribosomes embedded in its surface that make proteins

Smooth: Makes and breaks down lipids, also houses calcium ions

Pinocytosis: Taking up small particles

Phagocytosis: Taking up big particles that need to be broken down

Actin is polymerized by individual actin subunits in a double helix (each subunit is polar and new actins add to the + end). 

Its purpose is to resist expansion forces and participates in cell movement, cytokinesis, move organelles around

1) Glycolysis: Cytosol

2) Linking Step: Mitochondrial matrix

3) Citric Acid Cycle: Mitochondrial matrix

4) ETC: Mitochondrial inner membrane 

Consumed: Glucose, NAD+, ADP, H2O(?)

Produced: 2 net ATP, 2 net NADH, and 2 pyruvates

The glycolysis pathway can be shut off at the step where the second phosphate group is added to make a symmetrical molecule. Phosphofructokinase can be inhibited by ATP at a regulatory site.

Pyruvates travel from the cytosol to the mitochondrial matrix and are converted to Acetyl CoA. A CO2 is given off so the 3 carbon pyruvate becomes a 2 carbon molecule with CoA attached. An NADH is produced per pyruvate. 

Consumed: Pyruvates, CoA, NAD+

Produced: CO2, 2 NADH (1 per pyruvate), Acetyl CoA

What happens in the Citric Acid Cycle? What is consumed/produced?

Acetyl CoA binds to an oxaloacetate molecule (CoA leaves and goes to the linking step again). The 6 carbon molecule is oxidized until it has 4 carbons left (2 CO2 molecules leave) and electrons are given to NADH and FADH2. An ATP molecule is produced per revolution per pyruvate, 2 total. 

Consumed: Acetyl CoA, ADP, NAD+, FAD, H2O(?)

Produced: 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 (total from 2 pyruvates) 

NADH and FADH2 travel to the inner mitochondrial membrane and donate electrons to the enzyme complexes I and II. Each time electrons are donated, the complexes shoot H+ into the inner membrane space. Complexes I, III, and VI do this but II doesn't. After I and II are finished, the electrons travel by the Q transport protein and go to III, do the same thing, travel by C to IV and reduce oxygen to water. 

Consumed: NADH, FADH2, O2

Produced: H+ gradient, NAD+, FAD, H2O

The H+ gradient built up by ETC allows ATP synthase (the only gateway for ions like H+ to enter the matrix again) to synthesize ATP from ADP. Turns the wheel and catalyzes ADP to ATP reaction. 

Consumed: ADP

Produced: ATP

Where do fats and proteins enter the energy production pathway?

Fats can be broken into glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an intermediate in Glycolysis while fatty acids turn into Acetyl CoA. 

Proteins can be broken into amine groups (lost as urine), pyruvates, Acetyl CoA, and intermediates in the Citric Acid Cycle. 

DNA: Early steps of Glycolysis

Fats: Acetyl CoA step

Proteins: Citric Acid Cycle

1) Presence of a carbonyl group (C=O) and various -OH hydroxyl groups

2) Differing numbers of carbons

3) Spatial arrangement of molecule, particularly -OH

Animals make Glycogen to store energy (mostly alpha bonds)

Plants make Starch to store energy (mostly alpha bonds, made of amylose and amylopectin)

Plants also make Cellulose for structure (mostly beta bonds and hydrogen bonds)

Insects make Chitin for structure

Bacteria use Peptidoglycan for structure

1) They can't catalyze reactions

2) They have no way to polymerize on their own

3) They cannot form complementary base pairs to transmit information

1) Structure

2) Cell-cell recognition

3) Energy storage/metabolism

What is a hyper/hypo/isotonic solution?

Hypertonic: The side of the membrane in question is high in solute concentration

Hypotonic: The side of the membrane in question is low in solute concentration

Isotonic: Same concentration

Keeps harmful compounds out & allows for entry of needed compounds.

Reactants are in the same area & collide more frequently. So reactions are more efficient.

Aldose/ketose placement of Carbon group

Variation in # of Carbons

Different arrangement of hydroxl group

Alternative ring forms

Alpha-1,4-glycosidic linkages are easy to break by enzyme

where as

Beta-1,4-glycosidic linkages are hard to break by enzymes

Carbohydrates play the important role of taking in energy from sunlight in photosynthesis as carbohydrates have higher potential energy with C-H and C-C bonds than CO2 due to an equal sharing of e- in C-H and C-C bonds. 

The energy is stored in starch/glycogen and harnessed when those two are hydrolized through enzymes and converted into glucose.

Glycerol (a 3 Carbon molecule) linked to 3 fatty acids (carboxyl group with hydrocarbon chain)

Glycerol & fatty acids linked through ester linkage (dehydration of glycerol's hydroxl & fatty acid's carboxl group)

Order these molecules by highest permeability across a membrane. 

O2, Cl-, glucose, glycerol

1. O2 - small, nonpolar molecule

2. glycerol - small, uncharged, polar molecule

3. glucose - large, uncharged polar molecule

4. Cl- ion

Transport

Defense

Signaling

Structure

Movement

Catalysis

Hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl oxygen and amino hydrogen. 

Forms alpha helix and beta-pleated sheets.

R groups and their interactions with each other and the peptide-bonded backbone.

1.Hydrogen bonds

2.Hydrophobic interactions

3. Van der Waals interactions: assymetrical minute charges

4. Disulfide covalent bonds

5. Ionic bonds

List these types of molecule from greatest to least permeability:

1) Ions 2) Small nonpolar 3) Large nonpolar/polar 4) Small polar