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Definition
| A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience |
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| A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus |
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| The tone started as a neutral stimulus, but when paired with a reward, it produced the salivation process |
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UCS: Unconditioned stimulus- a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditiong
UCR: Unconditioned response- an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
CS: Conditioned stimulus- previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
CR: Conditioned response- a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning |
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discrimination extinction
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| the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency |
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| reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus |
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conditioned emotion response
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| an emotional response that has been acquired by conditioning |
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| a behavior therapy in which an aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits an undesirable reponse |
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| Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness |
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| a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences |
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Thorndike’s law of effect
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| if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to a satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened |
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| an event that follows a response that weakens or suppresses the tendency to make that response |
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| an event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response |
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| reinforcement that occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus |
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| the strengthening of a response because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus |
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schedules of reinforcement
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Definition
Fixed-Ratio: given after a number of non reinforced responses
Variable-Ratio: given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses
Fixed-Interval: given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
Variable-Interval: given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed |
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| learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs |
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| verbal interactions intended to enhance clients' self-knowledge and thus promote healthful changes in personality and behavior |
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Definition
| occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others |
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Definition
Encoding: involves forming a memory code
Storage: maintaining encoded information in memory over time
Retrieval: recovering information from memory stores |
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Craik & Lockhart’s levels
structural phonemic semantic
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| proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes |
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Definition
| preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second |
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| a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 10-20 seconds |
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Peterson & Peterson: forgetting in STM
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Definition
| measured how long undergraduates could remember three consonants if they couldn't rehearse them |
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Definition
| occurs when participants' recall an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post event information |
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Definition
Decay: forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
Interference: people forget information because of competition from other material |
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Definition
| crucial to the consolidation of memories (along with the adjacent structures in the medial temporal lobe) |
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Definition
| involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset amnesia |
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| loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset amnesia |
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| mental processes or thinking |
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| consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combing those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages |
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milestones of language development
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Definition
Behaviorist: children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and other established principles of conditioning
Nativist: Chomsky- language acquisition device (LAD) an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
Interactionist: biological predisposition and a supportive environment both contribute to language development |
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barriers to problem-solving
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Definition
irrelevant information: can have adverse effects on reasoning and problem solving
functional fixedness: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
mental set: exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
unnecessary constraints: a problem without assuming any constraints that don't exist
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Definition
Intelligence: measures general mental ability
Aptitude: asses specific types of mental abilities
Achievement: gauge a person's mastery and knowledge of various subjects |
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evidence for heritability of intelligence
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| Family and Twin studies: if identical twins are similar in intelligence that fraternal twins, it's presumably because of their greater genetic similarity. Identical twins are similar in IQ because parents treat them similarly |
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evidence for role of environment
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Adoption studies: adopted children show some resemblance to their foster parents
Reaction range: refer to these genetically determined limits on IQ (or other traits) |
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| field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. |
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Definition
| factor analysis: correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables. S=specific mental talents, G=general mental ability |
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Sternberg’s triarchic theory
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contextual: intelligence is a culturally defined concept
experiential: relationships between experience and intelligence; ability to deal effectively with novelty, and learn how to handle familiar tasks automatically and effortlessly
componential: describes three types of mental processes that intelligent thought depends on: metacompontents, performance components, and knowledgeacquisition
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Gardener’s multiple intelligences
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| involves goal-directed behavior |
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| internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension |
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| an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior |
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Definition
| human motives and those of other species are the products of natural slection |
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Definition
brain areas involved: the current thinking is that the lateral and ventromedical areas of the hypothalamus are elements in the neural circuitry. also, the arcuate nucleus and paraventricular nucleus
hormone regulation: insulin-secreted by the pancreas; after going without food for a while, the stomach secretes ghrelin; after food is consumed, the upper intestine releases a hormone called CCK that delivers satiety signals to the brain, reducing hunger
environmental factors: the availability and palatability of food, learned preferences and habits, and stress
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Definition
Coolidge effect: phenomenon—seen in nearly every mammalian species in which it has been tested—whereby both males and females exhibit continuous high sexual performance given the introduction of new receptive partners.
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Definition
the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence;
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): is a projective test, one that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal personal motives and traits |
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Term
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Definition
cognitive: rely on participants' verbal reports of what they're experiencing; emotions are potentially intense internal feelings that sometimes seem to have a life of their own
physiological: involved many areas in the brain and many neurotransmitter systems, as well as the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system
behavioral: people reveal their emotions through characteristic overt expressions; body language
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primary emotions theories
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Definition
James-Lange: the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal; different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions
Cannon-bard: emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system
Schacter’s 2-factor: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal
evolutionary primary emotions: emotions to be largely innate reactions to certain stimuli; natural selection has equipped humans with a small number of innate emotions with proven adaptive value
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Term
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Definition
| emotions are controlled by the constellation of interacting brain systems, but the amygdala appears to play a crucial role. sensory inputs that can trigger fear arrive at the thalamus and then are routed along a fast pathway directly to the amygdala and along a slow pathway that allows the cortex time to think about the situation |
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universal/cross-cultural aspects
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socially-engaging: Example: Japanese culture encourages the experience of socially engaging emotions more than North American culture
disengaging: Example: North American culture encourages disengaging emotions
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development vs maturation
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development: the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
maturation: development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint
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Definition
| the head-to-foot direction of motor development |
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Definition
| the center-outward direction of motor development |
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main stages in fetal development
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Definition
Germinal stage: 1st phase of prenatal development, encompassing the 1st two weeks after conception. Begins when a zygote is created through fertilization
Embryonic stage: 2nd stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the 2nd month.most vital organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing organism.
Fetal stage: 3rd stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months through birth. organs continue to grow and begin to function.
maternal nutrition: maternal malnutrition increases the risk of birth complications and neurological defects for the newborn
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Definition
| characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity |
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Definition
close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers;
secure: use their mother as a secure base from which to venture out and explore the world
anxious-ambivalent: appear anxious even when their moths are near and protest excessively when she leaves, but they are not particularly comforted when she returns
avoidant: seek little contact with their mothers and often are not distressed when she leaves
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Theories of development: Erickson’ theory of personality development
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psychosocial crises: personality is shaped by how individuals deal with the psychosocial crises
trust vs mistrust: babies depend on parents for basic needs, if needs are met they are happy, if not, then they are pessimistic
autonomy vs shame: 2 and 3 years old, self-sufficient, if not then it leads to parent-child conflicts, and develop a sense of personal shame and doubt
initiative vs guilt: 3-6 years old; take initiative that may sometimes conflict with their parent's rules. Parents need to support their children's emerging independence while maintaining appropriate control
industry vs inferiority: 6-puberty; children who are able to function effectively in less nurturant social sphere where productivity is highly valued should learn to value achievement and to take pride in accomplishment
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Term
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
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Definition
-sensorimotor 0-2: developing the ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions
object permanence: develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
-preoperation 2-7: gradually improve their use of mental images
centrism: tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting their important aspects
egoism: characterized by a limited ability to share another person's view-point
-concrete operational 7-12: can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events
decentration: allows children to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously
-conservation formal operational 12-adult: begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects
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Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
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Definition
preconventional: think in terms if external authority
conventional: see rules necessary for maintaining social order
postconventional: working out a personal code of ethics; acceptance of rules is rigid, and moral thinking shows some flexibility
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adolescence physiological changes
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Definition
neural changes: the brain does not change size after the age of 5; neurons are becoming more myelinated
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changes in adulthood (aging)
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Definition
physiological: grey hair, baldness, increased weight, decline in visualization and hearing abilities
neural: brain tissue and the brain's weight declines
cognitive: intelligence is stable, but a slight decline after the age of 60; speed in learning declines
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