cells are made up of...

• protein
• DNA
• RNA
• lipids
• polysaccharides
• lipopolysaccharides

catabolism

• "energy releasing"
• breaking down available nutrients to gain energy
• provides organic building blocks for synthesizing new cell components

anabolism

• "energy requiring"
• using simple organic building blocks to produce more complex cell components
• substrates are used to go to simple monomers
• includes teh biosynthesis of sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids

biosynthesis of sugars

• need simple, small carbon compounds to build 5-6 carbon sugars
• carbons are picked up from the environment, and the TCA cycle runs backwards
• this produces glucose

gluconeogensis

• making glucose from non sugars
• the glucose is then used to make polysaccharides

biosynthesis of amino acids

• uses the citric acid cyclee and A-ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate

enzymes

• composed of protein, and SOMETIMES RNA
• serve as biological catalysts
• commonly end in "-ase"
• has an active site: where it binds to the substrate
• enzymes combine with the substrate (reactant) to form an enzyme-substrate complex 

enzyme-substrate complex

• creates activation energy
• energy required to bring the substrate of an enzyme to the reactive state

coenzymes

• small molecules that are loosely attached to the enzyme
• move between enzymes, are recycled
• examples include: NAD+/NADH/FAD/CoA

prosthetic group

• small molecules that tightly bind indefinitely to the enzyme
• examples include: Heme, Fe-S cluster

oxidation

• removal of an electron or electrons
• release of protons

reduction

• the addition of electrons and protons

redox reactions

• occur in pairs (one reaction alone is a half reaction)
• H+ must be attached to another atom or molecule, cant be alone
• must result in a balanced reaction

reducing agent

• electron donor
• the substance thats being oxidized
• (usually H+)

oxidizer

• electron acceptor
• the substance that is being reduced
• (usually O2)

reduction potential

• denoted by E0'
• is the tendency of substances to be electron donors/acceptors
• measured in volts, done in reference to H2
• the more negative E0'=reduced substance, donates electrons
• the more positive E0'=oxidized substance, accepts electrons

redox tower

• the donating substance can only give electrons to an acceptor that is LOWER on the redox tower than itself
• the acceptor must have a more positive E0' than the donor

electron carriers

• facilitate electron transfer
• are coenzymes that interact with the enzymes catalyzing redox reactions
• NAD+/NADH cycling

NAD+/NADH cycling

• NAD+ is a common electron carrier 
• carries 2 e- and 2 H+ at the same time
• NAD+/NADPH is the common carrier in anabolic reactions

glycolysis

• break down of glucose into pyruvate
• does not require oxygen
• NAD+ --> NADH
• Step 1- prep reactions
• Step 2- production of NADH, ATP, and pyruvate
• Step 3- consumption of NADH, production of fermentation products

ATP generation

• ATP = most common energy source in cells
• ATP --> ADP + Pi
• ADP --> AMP + Pi

substrate-level phosphorylation

• ATP comes directly from the intermediates

oxidative phosphorylation

• ATP is produced at the expense of PMF

fermentation

• form of ANAEROBIC respiration, done without O2
• organic compound is both an electron donor and acceptor
• APT is produced by SUBSTRATE-LEVEL phosphorylation
• NADH --> NAD+

respiration

• form of catabolism
• compound is oxidized with O2 as the terminal electron acceptor
• ATP generated by OXIDATIVE phosphorylation, must more ATP is generated with respiration
• will ALWAYS take place in the presence of O2
• NADH --> NAD+

electron transport chain

• couples electron transfer between electron donors (such as NADH) and acceptors (such as O2) across a membrane
• the resulting proton gradient is used to generate ATP

ATP synthase

• PMF casues a large protein to rotate, making ATP
• the chemical function is carried out by the multiprotein cytoplasmic complex (F1)
• the ion-translocating function is carried out by membrane-integrated components (F0)
• IS reversible 

chemiosmotic coupling

• higher concentration of protons outside of the membrane than inside the membrane
• protons want to get back inside the cell
• when the protons cross the graident, they are transformed into ATP
• uses oxidative phosphorylation

anaerobic respiration

• done without oxygen
• uses something (such as nitrate) that's lower on the redox tower to create GLUcose

chemolithotrophy

• carbon comes from CO2 (organic)
• uses ATP and NADPH to do biosynthesis
• electron transport chains take the electrons down the tower
• can be done aerobically is oxygen is present
• can be done inorganically, as long as the compound is higher on the redox tower
• uses glucose as the carbon source

phototrophy

• light energy excites the electrons in the chlorophyll
• electrons get passed around, and eventually come back to the same source
• electron transport generates PMF and energy