Term
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Definition
1. Energy investment to be recoupled later
2. cleavage of six-carbon sugar to two three-carbon sugars
3. energy generation |
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Term
| where does glycolysis take place? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what is formed as a result of glycolysis? |
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Definition
| 2 ATP's, 2 NADH's, 2 pyruvates |
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Term
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Definition
PHOSPHORYLATION OF GLUCOSE
The enzyme hexokinase adds a P group to the glucose. This P group comes from ATP, therefore this step utilizes ATP. This step is the slowest, and is the rate-determining step.
glucose -> glucose 6-phosphate.
The phosphate is on the 6 group. |
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Term
| SECOND STEP OF GLYCOLYSIS |
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Definition
Isomerization of G6P
Phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer, fructose 6-phosphate.
glucose 6P -> fructose 6P |
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Term
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Definition
Phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate
Phosphofructokinase uses another ATP to transfer a P group to fructose 6-phosphate to form fructose 1,6-biphosphate
F6P -> F 1,6 biphosphate |
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Term
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Definition
Cleavage of FBP
Aldolsae splits fructose 1,6-biphosphate into 2 sugars that are isomers of each other.
F 1,6 P -> dihydroxyacetone phosphate, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate |
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Term
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Definition
Isomerization of DHP
Triose phosphate isomerase rapidly inter-converts the molecules dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate. GAP is removed as soon as it is formed, to be used in the next step.
DHP -> GAP |
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Term
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Definition
Oxidation of GAP
Enzyme ( glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase ) does 2 things:
-transfers a H+ from GAP to NAD+ to form NADH
-adds a P group from cytosol to oxidized GAP to form 1,3-biphosphoglycerate. This occurs for both GAP molecules generated by step 5.
*only true oxidation reaction
*NAD to NADH will go to mitochondria to produce more ATP.
GAP -> 1,3 biphosphoglycerate |
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Term
| SEVENTH STEP OF GLYCOLYSIS |
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Definition
Transfer of 1 P from BPG to ADP
Phosphoglycerate kinase transfers a P from 1,3-biphosphoglycerate to a molecule of ADP to form ATP.
BPG -> 3-phosphoglycerate, and 2 ATP |
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Term
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Definition
Isomerization of 3PG
Phosphoglycerate mutase relocates the P from 3-phosphoglycerate from the 3rd carbon to the 2nd carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate |
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Term
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Definition
Dehydration of 2PG
Enoclase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvic acid.
2-PG -> 2 phosphoenolpyruvate |
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Term
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Definition
Transfer of P from PEP to ADP
Pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvic acid and ATP.
PEP -> Pyruvic acid (2), and ATP (2) |
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Term
| How many ATP's are consumed in the investment phase? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many ATP's are produced at the energy generation phase? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What happens in muscle cell fermentation? |
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Definition
| 2 pyruvates are turned into lactic acid when NAD is reduced to NADH. |
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Term
| What happens in yeast fermentation? |
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Definition
| Pyruvate loses a CO2 molecule and is converted into acetaldehyde. Then, alcetaldehyde is reduced and turns into ethanol. |
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Term
| What are the products of muscle cell fermentation? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What are the products of yeast fermentation? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where do NADH and pyruvate do if they are under aerobic conditions? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where do NADH and pyruvate do if they are under aerobic conditions? |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens to pyruvate in the mitochondria? |
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Definition
| It reacts with coenzyme A and is converted to acetyl coA, and goes into the citric acide cycle. |
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Term
| What happens to NADH in the mitochondria? |
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Definition
| it is used to power the oxidative phosphorylation reactions (electron transport chain) |
|
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Term
| what is the mitochondria? |
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Definition
| membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. generates most of the cell's ATP. contains DNA (endosymbiont). Double membrane. |
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Term
| Where does oxidation of pyruvate and the citric acid cycle occur? |
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Definition
| In the mitochondria's matrix |
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Term
|
Definition
| The inner membrane of the mitochondria |
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Term
| Overview of oxidation of pyruvate? |
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Definition
| CO2 is removed by hydrolysis, driving NAD -> NADH, and condensation with coenzyme A (CoA-SH -> acetyl CoA) |
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Term
|
Definition
condensation and citrate synthesis
acetal coA + oxaloacetate = citric acid
-driven by hydrolysis that removes coA-SH |
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Term
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Definition
Isomerization of CA
citric acid -> isocitrate |
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Term
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Definition
oxidation of IC
isocitrate -> alpha ketoglutarate
-CO2 removed
-NAD reduced to NADH |
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Term
|
Definition
Oxidation of aKG
aKG -> succinyl coA
-co2 removed
-NAD reduced to NADH
-CoA-SH is added back on |
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Term
|
Definition
Hydrolysis of SCoA
Succinyl CoA -> Succinate
-CoA-SH removed
-GTP synthesis
-GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP
-ATP synthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
Oxidation of SA:
Succinate -> Fumarate
-FAD reduced to FADH2 |
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Term
|
Definition
Hydrogenation of FA
Fumarate -> Malate
-H20 consumed |
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Term
|
Definition
Oxidation of Malate
Malate -> oxaloacetate
-NAD reduced to NADH |
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Term
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Definition
| the breakdown of sugars. consumes o2 and releases co2. results in the harvesting of stored energy into useful energy |
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Term
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Definition
| light energy from the sun is used to build sugars. uses co2 and water, releases o2. results in the creation of energy stores. |
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Term
| aerobic respiration was only possible because of what? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what is the yield of the CAC? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what needs to happen to NADH to provide energy to the ETC? |
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Definition
| NADH needs to be oxidized, so it can lose elevtrons |
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Term
| photosynthesis is the conversion of ___ energy into ___ energy. |
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Definition
| sunlight energy into chemical energy |
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Term
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Definition
photosynthetic electron transfer; energy derived from sunlight energizes electrons in the pigment chorophyll
-movement of electrons through an ETC results in the transfer of energy to ATP and NADPH |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| carbon fixation; ATP and NADPH molecules produced during the light reactions serve as energy sources to drive glucose synthesis. |
|
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Term
| both light and dark reactions occur in the: |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| where are chloroplasts found? |
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Definition
| in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis |
|
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Term
| how many membranes to chloroplasts have? |
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Definition
| two, plus a third (thylakoid) |
|
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Term
| where is chlorophyll found? |
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Definition
| in the thylakoid, on the photocenters! |
|
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Term
| what is the final electron acceptor in the light reaction? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
a central photosynthetic reaction center
-2 chlorophyll molecules
-series of electron acceptors
-surrounded by hundreds of antenna chlorophyll molecules
-electrons in the antenna molecules get hit my photons, get excited, and go to the 2 chlorophylls in the reaction center, then to the ETC |
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Term
| what are electron carriers? |
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Definition
| coenzymes associated with the photocenters and the enzyme complexes |
|
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Term
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Definition
| absorbs photons to generate the high energy electrons |
|
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Term
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Definition
| absorbs the photons to generate the high energy electron |
|
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Term
| what does ferredoxin-NADP reductase do? |
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Definition
| synthesizes NADPH using the electrons transferred from photosystem 1. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| absorbs energy from light (photons) |
|
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Term
| what does the cytochrome bf complex do? |
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Definition
| uses the energy of the electrons to pump H+ into the lumen of the thylakoid |
|
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Term
| what is the product of the light reactions? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| describe the first step of the first reaction of the dark/calvin cycle |
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Definition
CO2 incorporation
1. CO2 is added to each of the 3 molecules of ribulose 1,5-biphosphate
2. the RuBP is split into two molecules with the addition of CO2
-catalyzed by rubisco |
|
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Term
| what are the results of the Calvin Cycle? |
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Definition
-incorporation of carbon into the living world
-6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate |
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Term
|
Definition
an anabolic pathway; the synthesis of glucose from pyruvate
-opposite of glycolysis |
|
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Term
| hexokinase: glycolysis = gluconeogensis: glucose 6-phosphate |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| phosphofructokinase: glycolysis = gluconeogenesis: fructose biphosphate |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| if ATP is high, which process will be favored? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
|
|
Term
| fatty acids and simple lipids make? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| how are the subunits of nucleic acids synthesized? |
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Definition
2 ways:
-de novo (from scratch); long pathways that assemble the molecules from smaller components. like cooking.
-salvaging: recycling nitrogenous bases using single steps. |
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Term
| uric acid is created in the body when there is an absence of ____ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| how do plants and animals store glucose? |
|
Definition
plants: starches
animals: glycogen |
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Term
| synthesis of polysaccharides involves the formation of ______ bonds |
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Definition
| glycosidic; requires energy |
|
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Term
| describe the synthesis of polysaccharides: |
|
Definition
glucose
1. phosphorylation of C6
glucose 6-P
2. isomerization
glucose 1-p
3. condensation
-reaction with UTp
-release of P-P (pyrophosphate)
UDP-glucose (activated intermediate)
4. formation of the glycosidic bond
-glucose if trasnferred from UDP to the growing polysaccharide chain
polysaccharide |
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Term
|
Definition
-ATP is hydrolyzed
-atmospheric N2 is reduced to NH3
-happens in nitrogen fixing bacteria |
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Term
|
Definition
-NADH or NADPH is oxidized
-NO3- from soil is reduced to NH3
-happens in bacteria, fungi, plants |
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Term
| amino acids are derived from: |
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Definition
| intermediates of respiration |
|
|
Term
| do all organisms have the enzymes necessary for synthesis of all 20 amino acids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanin hydroxylase. phenylalanine accumulates and is converted to phenylpyruvate. children become mentally retarded during their first year of life. is preventable. |
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Term
| the nuclear envelope is a ______ membrane |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the perinuclear space? |
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Definition
| cavity between two nuclear membranes |
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Term
| the outer nuclear membrane is connected to which organelle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens if the nuclear lamina is destroyed? |
|
Definition
| the nucleus will collapse |
|
|
Term
| what is the nuclear lamina? |
|
Definition
network of protein fibers that lines the inner wall of the nuclear envelope
-belong to a category of proteins called intermediate filaments |
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|
Term
| the lamina provides what? |
|
Definition
1. structural support for nucleus
2. attachment sites for chromatin |
|
|
Term
| how do the nucleus and cytoplasm communicate? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what molecules can passively go through nuclear pores? |
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Definition
| small molecules and proteins |
|
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Term
| what molecules have to actively go through the nuclear pores? |
|
Definition
| larger proteins and RNA's |
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|
Term
| proteins that are transported through the nuclear envelope contain a ____ |
|
Definition
| Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS) |
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Term
|
Definition
a 7 amino acid stretch in the middle of the polypeptide
-example is SV40 T-antigen |
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