• predictable and orderly changes over time due to life experiences and biological effects
• development is durable 

• the study of age-related inter-individual(between persons) differences and intra-individual change(what happens to one individual)

1. Academic: aquiring an objective understanding of what happens as people get older
2. Pesonal: perparing for our own developmental changes
3. Service: helping others to live better lives

Studying Age-Related Change

Development can best be described as:

• involving a variety of specific gains and losses throughout the entire lifespan

• Time and age are proxies: they do not directly cause change 
• Specific events or processes occuring during a given time interval can determine development
• But must consider both events & non-events

Development is About Interaction

Co-Construction of Biology and Culture

• Genetic factors(protect or predispose)
• Enviornmental factors(buffer or accelerate)
• This can determine out Health Span

• portion of the life span that is disease free

• Specific genes

• diet,lifestyle,stress, healthcare
• individual behaviors

• Social engagement
• Cultural practices

• potential for change,modification,or successful adaptation

• neural reserve capacity,intergrity,flexability

• abilities, learning, responding to demands

• cultural facilitation of optimal development

• developmental differences within individuals across dimensions 
• some competencies remain stable, some improve(e.g. wisdom), some decline(e.g. memory)
• different trajectories for gains and losses

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Change

Quantitative Change 

• gradual and continuous 
• amount rather than kind

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Change

Qualitative Change

• abrupt and stage-like
• type rather than amount 

• stage theories imply a sequence of qualitative change: continuity within stages, disconinuity between stages
• stages reflect hierarchical,additive,abrupt transitions to new competencies/behaviors

Forms of Developmental Change

Normative Age

• simliar across individuals and cultures:brain maturation/deterioration, information processes,senses(vision,hearing abilities)

Forms of Developmental Change

Normative History-Graded Factors

• closely related to specific historical events
• cohorts
• factors can include differences in education,economics, health, etc.

• uniques biological and enviornmental events
• mulitiple variables as influences: biogenetic, individual life choices, positive or negative chance events, success in adapting to events 

• limited individual resources for responding adaptively to stressors
• "brain reserve"or "cognitive reserve"
• generally decrease with age: inter-individual differences, intra-individual differences

What is Aging?

The Concept of Age

• Chronological age: number of years since birth, rough index;proxy for development

What is Aging?

Functional Age

• status on dimensions of development: biological age, psychological age, social age

• index of physical health(how many years with out disease), life span status(how long of a healthy life you have left)

• coping and adaptive capacities 

• social roles and responsibilities

1. Avoidance of disease and disability(bio age)
2. Maintence of effective physical and cognitive functioning in later years(psych and bio age)
3. Continued active engagement with life: friends, family, hobbies, activities (social age)

How Are You Aging?

Domain 1: Biological/Physical

• physical characteristics and genetic effects

How Are You Aging?

Domain 2: Cognitive 

• mental activties (thought, memory, attention)

How Are You Aging?

Domain 3: Personality

• self-perception, moral values, etc.

How Are You Aging?

Domain 4: Social

• Interactions with others, social rules 

U.S. Life Expectancy 

Are Things Getting Better?

• Timeline: living longer
• Avg. life expectancy in U.S. is 78.1 years
• Women 80.7 yrs vs. Men 75.4 yrs 
• In 1900 it was only 47.3 years
• We gained 30 years of life in the 20th century 

U.S. Life Expectancy

Are Things Getting Worse?

• Inequality: Unnatural causes 
• Strong correlation between globalization and longer life expectancy

• "The Graying of America"
• Greater numbers and proportions of older adults in the U.S. (65+)
• Currently: rapid growth of old-old (75+)
• Soon: Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964)

• "Age Structure"
• percentages of men and women grouped by age intervals
• moving towards equal proportions across age ranges
• more triangular in less developed countries 

• Cultural Differences: Racial and ethnic differences in life expectancies because of:economic &lifestyle factors, crime& violence in poor neighborhoods, access healthcare 

• Unique income groups/georgraphic regions
• Life expectanc differences of up to 33 years among subpopulations
• major factors: heart disease&cancer

• Age 25: Females begin to outnumber makes
• Populations 85 and older is 70% female
• Differences due to mulitiple factors: 
• Genetic(XX chromosomes& disease resistance)
• Biological(estrogen production/heart disease)
• Social Factors(health,occupation,lifestyles)

Concept of Life Span

Life Expectancy

• average predicted length of live 

Concept of Life Span

Longevity 

• Number of years an individual lives
• Theoretical upper limit of life span: genetically constrained, species-specific

Concept of Life Span

Maximum Life Span

• Average chronological age expected 
• Given avoidance/management of: diesease, illness, accidents
• Thought to be about 95 years 
• Human record is 122 years 

Predictors of Longevity 

• Heritability estimates: lower than might be expected, .26 for males/.23 for females
• Gene-Culture interactions: 5HTT gene(vulnerability/depression), genetic risk for cardiovascular disease

Human Survivorship

Getting "Rectangular"

• increasing longevity
• delaying morbidity(illness/disease)& moratality(death)

Human Survivorship

Cohorts&Cultural Changes

• medical achievements: vaccines, meds
• lifestyle changes: better diets, excersise

• Social and Economic Impact:
• Allocations of resources changes
• Economic costs increase(e.g. healthcare)
• "Dependency Ratio" decreases: ratio of working age to non-working age

• Predictors of Poverty among the Elderly
• Race(black)
• Education(no h.s degree)
• Gender(female)
• Martial status(divorced or widowed)
• Enviornment(city living)

• Normal biological aging=senescence
• Time-related changes in anatomy, neurochemistry, and physiology across the adult years
• Gradual, inevitable, and universal

Aging                                          Disease

Universal                                    Selective

Slow duration                             Relatively abrupt

General causes                           Specific causes

All cells, organs                           Selective Loci

Why Do We Age?

1. Programmed Longevity

• genes-switch on and off

Why Do We Age?

2. Hormonal Changes

• biological clocks-pace of aging

Why Do We Age?

3. Immunological Changes

• inefficiency- disease vulnerability

Why Do We Age?

4. Metabolic Rates

• faster- increase pace of aging

Why Do We Age?

5. Cross-Liking Effects

• "bad bonds"- reduce cell efficancy 

Why Do We Age?

6. Telomere Shortening

• short "DNA tips"- less cell replacement 

Why Do We Age?

7. Free Radicals

• extra electrons-cell damage

Why Do We Age?

8. DNA Damage 

• "faulty instructions"- cellular dysfunction

Why Do We Age?

9. Beta Amyloid Protein 

• accumulation- imparied neural functioning 

Why Do We Age?

10. "Wear and Tear"

• Cells deteriorate-agin accelerates

Biogenetics of Longevity

Why do we live long beyond the peak of our reproductive fitness?

• organisms need to survive to reproduce 
• physiological "reserve capacity" is a by-product of our reproductive success
• parents eventually age/die so as not to compete with their offspring

Genetic Processes

Polygenic

• multiple genes affect single phenotype

Genetic Processes

Pleiotropic

• single gene affects multiple phenotypes

Genetic Processes

Antagonistic Pleiotropy

• positive and negative phenotypes

• Extremely rare genetic condition 
• First descrived in 1886
• Current rate: 1 in 8 million newborns
• Symptoms begin at 18-24 months

Progeria

Characteristics

• Characterized by accelerated again
• growth failure
• loss of body fat and hair
• aged looking skin
• increases disease risk

Progeria

Life-Span

• Usually only live to 13 yrs oldd

Progeria

Causes

• Lamin A protein deficency(be gene mutation)
• weakened nuclear membranes
• increased cell death 

Progeria 

Results 

• Arteriosclerosis and heart disease by age 10
• median age of death 13
• most patients get it before 30
• there is currently no cure or treatment

Progeria 

Physical Characteristics

• Dwarfism
• Baldness
• Pinched Nose
• Small face and jaw relative to head size
• Delayed tooth formation
• Aged looking skin
• Have no cognitive effects

Biological Aging

Changes in Apperance 

• wrinkled skin and age spots 
• hair loss and graying
• facial structure(cartilage), ears and nose
• decreases in height and weight(muscle): cohort effects:height and weight are increasing

Biological Aging 

Structural Changes

• Reduced Muscle Tone: declines in strength and flexibility 
• Reduced Bone Density: loss in bone calcium, increased brittleness, osteoporosis/osteopenia
• Prevention: calcium and weight bearing excersie

Biological Aging

Respiratory/Circulatory Changes

• Lung tissue loses elacticity: oxygen capacity decreases
• Heart muscles lose efficency: arteries become less flexiable and narrower
• Heart disease increases: leading cause of death in the U.S.

Biological Aging

Hormonal Changes

• Increased fertility risks
• Women: more variation in menstural cycle, decreases estorgen, fewer egg follicles
• Men: decreased testosterone, lower sperm quality
• All lowers around age 30

Menopause 

Women

• typically between age 45-55 years
• cessation of child bearing capacity
• 12 months with out menstural period

Menopause 

Preimenopause 

• 3-5 years of declining estrogen production
• variety of physical and emotional symptoms(e.g. hot flashes)

Biological Aging

Sensory Changes: Vision

• most common
• Presbyopia: difficulty seeing close up-caused by reduced accomadation of the lens
• cataracts, maculopathy, glaucoma

Biological Again

Sensory Aging; Hearing

• most common
• Presbycusis: difficulty with high pitched tones
• Tinnitus: whistling, crackling, ringing sounds

Biological Aging

Sensory Changes: Taste,Smell, Touch, Kinesgthesis

• lessened sensitivity to basic tastes
• some lessened sensitivity to touch: temperature changes, painful stimuli
• imparied kinethesis-falls 

Biological Aging

Response Speed

• gradual, age-related slowing
• cognitive tasks and physical tasks
• "...one of the most reliable and valid findings in the study of human again"

Brain Aging

Neuronal Aging

• reductions in overall brain volume
• programmed neuron death(apoptosis): 25-50% loss of neurons in cortex/hippocampus
• reduced efficiency(neuronal viabilty): protein build up-neuralfibrillary tangles and senile plaques(beta-amyloid protein)

Brain Aging

Compensation

• less localization
• more bihemisphric involvement 

Brain Aging

Neurotransmitters: Reductions in Acetycholine

• normal decrements in memory
• disease related memory impairment(e.g. alzheimers disease)

Brain Aging

Neurotansmitters: Reductions in Dopamine

• other cognitive and psychomotor decrements
• disease related motor impairment(e.g. Parkinsons disease)

Is It Demetia?

Pseudodmentia vs. Dementia

P                                                   D

rapid symptom onset        gradual symptom onset

depression is typical          depression is variable

distress is common           distress in uncommon

psychiatric history             history is not likely

Forms of Dementia 

Multi-Infaret Dementia-15%

• Vascular disease: multiple small strokes
• confusion,language difficulty, motor disturbances
• recovery is often rapid and complete

Forms of Demetia

Lewy Body Dementia(LBD)-20%

• Build-up of abnormal proteins 
• hallucinations/delusions, attention problems
• motor disturbances similar to Parkinsons
• Closest to Alzheimers disease
• Not a major memory impairment 

Forms of Dementia

Alzheimers Disease-55% or more

Symptoms

Forms of Dementia

Alzheimers

Outcomes

• Irreversible and ultimately leads to death 
• 4th leading cause of death among adults in U.S.
• About 5 million Americans currently have AD

Alzheimers Disease

Primary Causes

• Bulid up of beta-amyloid proteins 
• senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
• concentrated in hippocampus and frontal/temporal
• neural degeneration
• Decrements in Acetylocholine

Alzheimers Disease 

Genetic Risk

• susceptibility gene
• APOE-4-controls cholesterol transport
• may promote beta-amyloid build up

Forms of AD

Late Onset

• 85% of cases 
• serious deficits begin in 70s and 80s 
• long period of pre-clinical decline

Forms of AD

Early-Onset

• 5-15% of cases
• marked declines before age 60
• distinct genetic markers
• presenilin genes(familial form)

Treatments for AD

Cholinesterase Inhibitors

• prevent the breakdown of acetycholine
• early to moderate AD(3 drugs)

Treatments for AD

NMDA Antagonists

• regulates glutamate,reduces toxic effects
• moderate to late AD(1 drug)

1. Frequent forgetting in everyday situations
2. Problems with familiar tasks
3. Problems with familiar words
4. Disorentation of time and place
5. Poor decision making

6. Problems with abstract thinking

7. Misplacing things

8. Mood swings or odd behaviors 

9. Personality change

10. Loss of initiative

Life Events and Stress

What is Stress?

• Biological and psychological responses to potentially threatening situations
• General Adaptations Syndrome 

General Adaptation Syndrome

• nonspecific physiological response to threat 
• fight or flight/sympathetic reaction
• 1. Alarm: mobolized to response
• 2. Resistance: make efforts to cope
• 3. Exhaustion: reserves are depleted

What Are Stressful Life Events?

• Events that triggor a stress response: stressors(internal thoughts or external situations)(real or perceived)
• Chronic exposure: increased vulnerability to illness and disease 

• Appraisal(Lazarus&Folkman 1984)
• 1. Primary: is the event negative, neutral or positive
• 2. Secondary: do I have sufficient coping resources
• Large inter-individual differences

• Processes used for managing stressors: resources employed, assesing and selecting
• Emotion-focused coping
• Problem-focused coping

Emotion-Focused                      Problem-Focused

Internal Resources     External Resources

Subjective(strengths)               Objective(situation)

Emotional(reactions)                Cognitive(solutions)

Resilient with age    Diminished with age

• Developmental changes that result from experiencing and managing stressful events
• resulting effects
• may be positive or negative(gains and losses)
• may follow different trajectories

1. Homeostasis: biophysical stability(basic life support)
2. Allostasis: maintaining stability through change-processes that support homeostasis
3. Allostatic Load: cumulative burden on biological systems caused by effort to adapt to stressful events

• serious injury or personal loss

Patterns of Disruption

1. Resilience

• little or no behavioral disruption

Patterns of Disruption

2. Recovery 

• steady return to normal functioning

Patterns of Disruption 

3. Delayed

• delayed disruption or delayed return to normal

Patterns of Disruption

4. Chronic 

• little improvement or recovery over time 

Timing Matters

Social Clock

• Internalized sense of timing for judging whether nomative life events are occuring on-time or off-time(i.e. too fast or too slow)ex marriage pregnancy,retirement,career changes, or illness
• Off-time events are typically more stressful 

• Preserving positive self-evaluation in the face of developmental change in aging: subjective interpretations of gains/losses
• "SOC" Model: selective optimization with compensations, using ones energy on the most important tasks in order to maintain successful coping