Term
| True or False: Neurological disorders are not common. |
|
Definition
| FALSE, neurological disorders are common |
|
|
Term
| What are the two divisions of the nervous system? What are their components? |
|
Definition
-Central NS= brain + spinal cord
-Peripheral NS= all other neuro stuff |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 divisions of the brain? |
|
Definition
| -cerebrum + cerebellum + brain stem |
|
|
Term
| What are the components of the brain stem? what are they responsible for? |
|
Definition
-diencephalon has hypothalamus and thalamus (main relay for all sensory info to cerebral cortex)
-Midbrain: motor centers and CNIII
-Pons: motor centers and major pathway for info from stem to cerebellum (responsible for urination)
-Medulla: most CN's |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 primary germ layers? |
|
Definition
| -ectoderm, mesoderm, entoderm |
|
|
Term
| What arises from the ectoderm? |
|
Definition
| -skin, nervous system, eyes, and ears |
|
|
Term
| Definition: Neuroectoderm |
|
Definition
| -the division of the ectoderm that makes the nervous system |
|
|
Term
| What arises from the mesoderm? |
|
Definition
| -CT, cartilage, muscle, bone, blood, blood vessels, lymph system, kidneys, and gonads |
|
|
Term
| What arises from the entoderm? |
|
Definition
| -viscera (rep and digestive tract, bladder, and urethra) |
|
|
Term
| What is the mature remnant of the nodocord? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In what breeds of dogs is it common for the neural tube to not close all the way during maturation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where in the vertebrae does the spinal cord end? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What nn innervate the tail? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What innervates the anus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the Frontal Lobe of the Brain? |
|
Definition
-motor functions
-origin of corticospinal pathways
LEARNED RESPONSES, NOT GAIT |
|
|
Term
| Are humans brainstem or cortical walkers? Animals (excluding primates)? |
|
Definition
-cortical (dep on frontal lobe)
-animals are brainstem walkers, thus not a learned behavior |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the parietal lobe? |
|
Definition
| -sensory: touch, pain, proprioception |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the temporal lobe? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the occipital lobe? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -cerebral cortex and diencephalon |
|
|
Term
| What is the forebrain responsible for? |
|
Definition
| -thinking, consciousness, perception of stimuli, smell, vision, hearing, behavior, voluntary motor control, endocrine: AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the thalamus? What part of the brainstem is it found in? |
|
Definition
-relay station for almost all sensory information
-found in the diencephalon |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the hypothalamus? Where in the brainstem is it found? |
|
Definition
-endocrine, autonomic, pituitary
-found in the diencephalon |
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical signs of forebrain issues? |
|
Definition
-aimless walking and pacins: minor gait abnormalities
-wide circles
-altered mentation
-Seizure
-visual deficits
-altered postural reactions |
|
|
Term
| True or False: All animals with seizures have an issue in the forebrian |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the responsibilities of the midbrain (mesencephalon)? |
|
Definition
-motor centers for gait
-eyeball movement (CNIII): motor function of the eye
-PLRS (CNIII): pupil constriction
-autonomic |
|
|
Term
| What are the components of the hindbrain? |
|
Definition
| -pons, cerebellum, medulla |
|
|
Term
| CNII-XII originate in what part of the brain? CNI? |
|
Definition
-CNII-CNXII: from brainstem
-CNI: from forebrain |
|
|
Term
| True or False: The cerebellum initiates the motor activity it coordinates. |
|
Definition
| FALSE; ONLY COORDINATES MOTOR ACTIVITY BUT DOES NOT INITIATE IT |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the cerebellum? |
|
Definition
-coordinates motor activity (does not initiate it)
-measures and matches motor signals |
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical signs of cerebellum isssues? |
|
Definition
| -ataxia, dysmetria, tremors |
|
|
Term
Definition: dymetria
-what are the two divisions? |
|
Definition
-abnormalities in measuring or matching
-hypermetric movement: over-shooting
-hypometric movement: undershooting |
|
|
Term
| True or false: It is uncommon, but does occur, for paresis and weakness to present with cerebellum issues. |
|
Definition
| FALSE, no paresis or weakness presents with cerebellum issues |
|
|
Term
| Definition: Spinal cord segment |
|
Definition
| -the area of spinal cord that is bordered by a pair of spinal nn |
|
|
Term
| What is the first area where pain is processed? |
|
Definition
| -dorsal horn of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| What composes the white matter of the spinal cord? gray matter? |
|
Definition
-white matter= myelinated axons (peripheral)
-gray matter= neurons |
|
|
Term
| How many vertebrae are there in a convince spinal cord? How many are in each division? |
|
Definition
-total= 36
-Cervical= 8
-Thoracic= 13
-Lumbar= 7
-Sacral= 3
-Caudal= 5 |
|
|
Term
| What section of the spinal cord compromises the Brachial Plexus? Lumbosacral plexus? |
|
Definition
-Brachial= C6-T2
-LS= L3-S2 |
|
|
Term
Definition: Long Tracts
What are its divisions? |
|
Definition
-white matter composed of axons that connect centers in brain to spinal cord
-Motor: UMN (efferent) neurons in cortex and brainstem
-Sensory: pain and proprioception (afferent) |
|
|
Term
| Are signs caused by a lesion below the midbrain ipsilateral or contralateral? What if the lesion is above the midbrain? |
|
Definition
-Below midbrain: ipsilateral
-Above midbrain: contralateral |
|
|
Term
| True or False: In spinal cord and brain, usually have concurrent signs of both sensory and motor dysfunction. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: A severe lesion in the spinal cord usually affects both descending motor tracts (efferents) and ascending pain and prioprioceptive tracts (afferents). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which pathways are most sensitive to compression injury? Which are least sensitive? |
|
Definition
-most= proprioceptive
-least= deep pain |
|
|
Term
Definition: Spinocerebellar tract
How severe is ataxia resulting from an injury here? |
|
Definition
-proprioceptive pathway in spinal cord responsible for taking info from the limbs to the brain (sensory)
-injury= severe ataxia |
|
|
Term
Definition: Dorsal column system
How severe is ataxia resulting from an injury here? |
|
Definition
-tract in spinal cord responsible for taking proprioceptive info to CEREBRAL CORTEX (conscious perception)
-injury= mild ataxia |
|
|
Term
| Do reflexes have motor or sensory components? Voluntary or involuntary? |
|
Definition
-BOTH sensory and motor components
-involuntary |
|
|
Term
| What is the primary goal of reflexes? |
|
Definition
| -adaption to prevent injury or to maintain core body functions (digestion, respiration, cardiovascular, URINATION) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 types of reflexes? |
|
Definition
-spinal reflexes
-cranial nerve reflexes
-autonomic reflexes |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 types of spinal reflexes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 most clinically important examples of autonomic reflexes? |
|
Definition
-pupillary light reflexes
-micturition |
|
|
Term
| Outline the pathway of a reflex |
|
Definition
| sensory stimulation=> stimulus travels up peripheral n => enters dorsal root=> integrated in dorsal horn (gray)=> stimulates flexor response AND inh extensor |
|
|
Term
Definition: Crossed Extensor Reflex
Why is this clinically significant? |
|
Definition
-flex one limb and the other automatically extends while standing; should be inh in lateral recumbancy
-If this occurs in lateral recumbancy, we know that the inh of the extensor via the UMN is broken |
|
|
Term
| Which of the 2 most used reflexes in neurological exams are are used for the TL? PL? |
|
Definition
-TL= withdrawal
=PL= withdrawal + knee jerk |
|
|
Term
| Is the knee jerk reflex monosynaptic or polysynaptic? Withdrawal reflex? |
|
Definition
-knee jerk= monosynaptic
-withdrawal= polysynaptic |
|
|
Term
| What are the two functional systems? Their divisions? |
|
Definition
-Motor system (efferent)= UMN system + LMN system
-Sensory System (afferent)= General (touch, pressure, temp, pain) + Special (vision, hearing, taste) |
|
|
Term
| Are LMN or UMN responsible for voluntary motor action? What about reflexes? |
|
Definition
-UMN
-LMN only for reflexes |
|
|
Term
| Where are LMN located? What do they innervate (in general)? |
|
Definition
-cell body in ventral gray matter
-axon goes out ventral root and innervates skeletal m, glands, blood vessels, etc |
|
|
Term
| Where are the neurons of the Upper Motor System located? Which ones are essential for gait? |
|
Definition
-neurons in brainstem and cerebral cortex
-ONLY those in the brainstem are essential for gait |
|
|
Term
| Definition: Motor Long Tracts |
|
Definition
| -axons that project to cranial nn and motor neurons in spinal cord grey matter (the LMNs) |
|
|
Term
| Do Upper Motor System initiate voluntary or involuntary motor activity? Do they have facilitory or inhibitory components? |
|
Definition
-voluntary
-BOTH facilitory and inhibitory |
|
|
Term
| What happens to reflexes when UMN function is lost? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the general importance of the vestibular nucleus UMN center in brainstem? |
|
Definition
| -important for maintaining posture and extensor tone |
|
|
Term
| Caudal to the midbrain, are motor fibers ipsilateral or contralateral? What about cranial to the midbrain? |
|
Definition
-caudal= ipsilateral
=cranial= contralateral |
|
|
Term
| Lesions rostral to the midbrain affect the __________ limbs. Lesions caudal to the midbrain affect the ___________ limbs. |
|
Definition
-contralateral
-ipsilateral |
|
|
Term
| Where are the neurons of the LMN system located? What do they do? |
|
Definition
-neurons are in brainstem nuclei or ventral grey matter of all spinal cord segments
-connect CNS to muscle and glands
-axons form spinal and then peripheral nn and synapse on muscle and glands |
|
|
Term
Definition: Neuromuscular junction/ motor end plate
What is its neurotransmitter? |
|
Definition
-muscle synapse between LMN axon and muscle cells
-ACh |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Because ACh is the neurotransmitter, Ca is not important in activating APs. |
|
Definition
| FALSE, it is Ca that is released into the muscle cells to cause contraction |
|
|
Term
| Are LMN the motor or sensory component of reflexes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: The UMN must have a healthy LMN to function properly. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What occurs what there is UMN and LMN dysfunction? What signs are specific to either? |
|
Definition
-motor dysfunction that causes paresis or paralysis
-UMN: reflexes are normal OR inc; SLOW onset of disuse muscle atrophy
-LMN: dec reflexes, dec muscle tone, RA
PID onset of muscle atrophy (denervation atrophy) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between disuse muscle atrophy and denervation atrophy? |
|
Definition
-disuse: slow onset due to UMN issue
-denervation: rapid onset due to LMN issue |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 types of Sensory Systems? |
|
Definition
-general proprioception
-perception of noxious stimuli: pain
-special proprioception: vestibular
-vision and pupillary light reflexes |
|
|
Term
| Definition: Proprioception |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the clinical sign associated with dysfunction of general proprioception pathway? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are general proprioceptive receptors? Axons? Cell bodies? |
|
Definition
-tendons, joint capsules, and mm
-peripheral and cranial nn
-dorsal root ganglion |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 major general proprioceptive spinal cord pathways? |
|
Definition
-dorsal columns
-spinocerebellar tract |
|
|
Term
| What is the dorsal column system responsible for? Is it conscious or unconscious? |
|
Definition
-discriminatory touch and pressure
-conscious |
|
|
Term
| What is the spinocerebellar system responsible for? Is it conscious or unconscious? |
|
Definition
-limb position and muscle activity for skeletal motor coordination
-unconscious |
|
|
Term
| The General Proprioceptive Dorsal Column System projects to the (contralateral/ipsilateral) cortex. What are its clinical signs? |
|
Definition
-contralateral
-foot dragging, mild ataxia, and abnormal paw righting |
|
|
Term
| The General Proprioceptive Spinocerebellar system project to (contralateral/ipsilateral) cerebral cortex. What are its clinical signs? How do you distinguish between it and cerebellar disease? |
|
Definition
-ipsilateral
-severe ataxia, hypermetria, swinging of limbs, swaying of the trunk
-looks like cerebellar disease but has no intention tremor |
|
|
Term
| Brainstem lesions below midbrain and throughout spinal cord are (contralateral/ipsilateral) to limbs. Lesions in forebrain are (contralateral/ipislateral) to limbs. |
|
Definition
-ipsilateral
-contralateral |
|
|
Term
| Lesions in the spinal cord: if in cervical it causes ________ and ataxia and if thoracolumbar cord it causes _______ and ataxia. |
|
Definition
Cervical" tetra or hemiparesis
-Thoracolumbar: paraparesis or monoparesis |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 types of pain pathways? Where are their receptors? |
|
Definition
-Superficial: receptors in skin
-Deep: receptors in muscle, joints, and tendons
-Visceral (derivation of deep): receptors in abdomen and thorax |
|
|
Term
| The Superficial Pain Pathway projects to (contralateral/ipsilateral/both) sensory cortex(es). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The Deep Pain Pathway is (unilateral/bilateral) and (uni-/mulitsynaptic). It projects to (contralateral/ipsilateral/both) cerebral hemisphere(s) |
|
Definition
-bilateral
-multisynaptic
-both |
|
|
Term
| Is the superficial or deep pain pathway more prognostically advantageous? Why? |
|
Definition
-deep
-b/c it is bilateral and crosses at many levels of the spinal cord, you know you MUST have a bilateral, severe lesion to lose deep pain sensation |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the vestibular system? What type of proprioception is this? |
|
Definition
-communicate head's orientation to brian (detects linear motion and angular accel), antigrabity system (facilitates extensor tone), moves eyes to keep visual world focused on retica
-special proprioception |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 anatomical divisions of the vestibular system? What do they encompass? |
|
Definition
-Periphera: sensory receptors (utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals) and axons in the vestibular n
-Central: vestibular nuclei and CNS projections |
|
|
Term
| Where is the Vestibulocochlear nerve located? Which cranial nerve is this? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The vestibulospinal pathway of the central vestibular system stimulates what? |
|
Definition
| -extensor mm and inh flexors |
|
|
Term
| How can you clinically differentiate between a central vestibular issue and a peripheral vestibular issue? |
|
Definition
-central is near long tracts in brainstem, so an issue would cause postorial deficits (righting foot and hopping)
-peripheral is nowhere near long tracts so no issues with long tracts |
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical signs of vestibular dysfunction? |
|
Definition
-severe ataxis: falling, stumbling towards side of lesion
-circling and head tilt: towards side of lesion
-Nystagmus: opposite side of lesion
-might vomit
-Paresis: only in vestibular disease where lesion affects motot long tracts in the brainstem (central) |
|
|
Term
Definition: Common Neuro-opthalmic pathways
-What are they (4)? |
|
Definition
-contain fibers for vision and pupillary light reflexes, thus a lesion here affects both
-Retina, Optic nerve, Optic Chiasm, Optic tracts |
|
|
Term
| What division of eye stuff is the visual pathway responsible for? What are its divisions? |
|
Definition
-purely vision
-L geniculate nucleus, optic radiation, occipital cortex |
|
|
Term
| What eye stuff are the Pupillary Light Reflex Pathways responsible for? What nerve is involved? Parasympathetic or sympathetic? |
|
Definition
-pupillary constriction
-occulomotor nerve (CN III)
-parasympathetic |
|
|
Term
| Compare/contrast: Direct PLR and Indirect PLR |
|
Definition
-Direct PLR: light shines in eye and that eye constricts
-Inderect PLR: light shines in eye and other eye constricts |
|
|
Term
| Is pupillary constriction sympathetic or parasympathetic? Dilation? |
|
Definition
-constriction= para
-dilation= symp |
|
|
Term
| Outline the pathway for pupillary dilation |
|
Definition
| fist order neuron exits hypothalamus=> enter T1-3=> synapses on LMN (2nd order neuron)=> axon enters cranial sympathetic chain=> synapses in cranial cervical ganglion (3rd order neuron)=> axons go to eye to cause dilation |
|
|
Term
| What CN is the Occulomotr Nerve? What is it responsible for? What are the major clinical signs associated with an issue with this n? |
|
Definition
-CNIII
-medial, ventral, and dorsal eye movements
-issue= ventrolateral strabismus (deviation of the eye) |
|
|
Term
| What CN is the Trochlear nerve? What is it responsible for? What clinical signs are associated with an issue with this n? |
|
Definition
-CN IV
-rotate eye dorsomedial
-no obvious signs |
|
|
Term
| What CN is the Abducens? What is it responsible for? What clinical signs are associated with an issue with this nerve? |
|
Definition
-lateral movement and retracts globe
-issue= medial strabismus and inability to retract globe |
|
|
Term
| What are the basic components of the neurological exam? Their divisions? |
|
Definition
-Observe the patient: mental status, posture, gait
-Examine the patient: postural rxns, spinal reflexes, CNs, sensory exam, muscle atrophy, concurrent clinical signs |
|
|
Term
| What parts of the brain does the mental status step check? What types of diseases does an altered mental status indicate? |
|
Definition
-cerebral cortex and brainstem reticular activating centers
-indicates forebrain, brainstem, or systemic disease |
|
|
Term
| What 3 pathways does posture check? |
|
Definition
| -vestibular system, cerebellum, general proprioception |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 signs of abnormal posture? |
|
Definition
| -head tilt, circling, base wide stance, leaning, falling, head bobbing |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the cerebellum? What clinical signs are associated with an issue here? |
|
Definition
-coordinates, measures and matches
-Issue= ataxia, dysmetria, tremors, but NO PARESIS |
|
|
Term
| Normal gait involves what two systems? Where are these systems located? |
|
Definition
-proprioceptive and motor systems
-peripheral nn, spinal cord, and brain stem |
|
|
Term
| Gait is maintained by motor systems in the (brainstem/cerebellum) and is coordinated by the (brainstem/cerebellum) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lesions in the forebrain produce (minimal/maximal) gait abnormalities. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do we determine prognosis in a neurological case if there is paralysis? |
|
Definition
| -check pain response, if they can feel pain, heir sensory systems are still intact |
|
|
Term
Definition: Ataxia
-what are the 3 types |
|
Definition
-uncoordinated movement
-Types: General Proprioception (signs dep on loc of lesion), Vestibular (head tilt, circling, nystagmus, fall), and Cerebellar (no paresis but wildly ataxic) |
|
|
Term
| Definition: Paresis (paralysis) |
|
Definition
| -abnormality of motor system |
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical signs of a forebrain lesion? |
|
Definition
-walk aimlessly, wide cirles in direction of lesion, can't find their way out f a corner
-NO MARKED DIFFERENCE IN GAIT |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -LMN in ventral gray matter + ventral nerve root + peripheral n + motor end plate + muscle fiber |
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical signs of a motor unit disease? |
|
Definition
| -stiff, short-strided gait |
|
|
Term
| What is the clinical purpose of testing postural reactions? |
|
Definition
-tests both sensory (proprioception) and motor systems in peripheral nn, spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex
-also allows lesion localization ot a major region of the NS |
|
|
Term
| What does hopping test? What factors are weighed? |
|
Definition
-tests proprioception
-look at how quickly they initiate and how well do they support |
|
|
Term
| If they fail hopping test with a normal gait, what is the issue? With an abnormal gait? |
|
Definition
-Normal= lesion above midbrain
-Abnormal= lesion below midbrain |
|
|
Term
| What clinical tests are used to test proprioception? |
|
Definition
-hopping
-paw righting
-wheel barrowing
-hemistanding
-placing |
|
|
Term
| How do we localize a lesion to a segment f the CNS or to a peripheral/cranial nerve? |
|
Definition
| -test reflexes, sensory perception, and cranial nn |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Spinal reflexes cannot be inh by UMNs. |
|
Definition
| FALSE, spinal reflexes can be inh by UMNs |
|
|
Term
| If reflexes are normal or inc, there is (LMN/UMN) paresis. If reflexes are dec or absent, then it is (LMN/UMN)paresis. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When performing a withdrawal reflex, why is it best to test each digit? |
|
Definition
| -each n has its own autonomous zone |
|
|
Term
| Is an abnormal crossed extensor reflex a LMN or UMN issue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the major extensor reflex used in the PL? Is it monosynaptic or polysynaptic? What nerve does it test |
|
Definition
-knee jerk/ patellar reflex
-monosynaptic
-femoral n |
|
|
Term
| True or False: A reflex and conscious perception of noxious stimuli are the same thing. |
|
Definition
| FALSE, reflex are unconscious |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the Trigeminal Nerve (CNV)? What are its divisions and their individual functions? |
|
Definition
-face sensation and motor
-Opthalmic br: sensory around eye
-Maxillary br: purely sensory around face
-Mandibular br: sensory and motor of bottom jaw |
|
|
Term
| What is the clinical purpose of the panniculus reflex? Outline its pathway. |
|
Definition
-localize lesions along the spine
-Pathway: superficial pain receptors in skin=> peripheral nerve=> superficial pain tracts=> C7-8=> lateral thoracic nerve=> cutaneous trunci muscle |
|
|
Term
| What vertebrae segments compose the Brachial Plexus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the clinical tests for the cranial nn? |
|
Definition
| -menace, PLR's, conjugate eye movements, palpegral reflex, facial sensation, mastication, tongue, swallowing |
|
|
Term
| What are the responsibilities and testability of the CNs? |
|
Definition
CNI Olfaction: +/-
CNII Optic: vision and PLR
CNIII Occulomotor: autonomic PLR and motor= eye movement
CNIV: trochlear, not testable
CNV Trigeminal: motor=mm of mastication and sensory=face
CNVI Abducens: pull eye laterally and retract, can evaluate
CNVII Facial: motor to mm of facial expression, test via palpebral reflex
CNIII Vestibulocochlear: v easy to test but c difficult to test
CNIX Glossopharyngeal: important for swallowing
CNX Vagus: major autonomic n, test gag response
CNXI Accessory: only test in horses
CNXII Hypoglossal: tongue movement |
|
|
Term
| True or False: The menace test is checking the menace reflex of the optic nerve (CNII). |
|
Definition
| FALSE; menace tests a RESPONSE not a REFLEX |
|
|
Term
| Which CN does the palpegral/corneal reflex test? |
|
Definition
-Sensory: CNV: Trigeminal (maxillary and ophthalmic brr)
-Motor: Facial n: mm of facial expression |
|
|
