Term
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Definition
| speaker to child, providing framework |
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Term
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Definition
| when kids will have more to say about something that has a script- situations. “pretend you're at a party” given something to say. Familiar setting. |
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Term
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Definition
| dad being practice for strangers |
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Term
| Why is conversation considered to be the basic type of language? What is the basic form of conversation? |
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Definition
-Basic type of language because it’s the most frequent type of language, and assumed to be universal.
-Basic form of conversation is alternate turn-taking |
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Term
| What are 3 types of difficulties that children face in carrying on a conversation? Briefly describe some of the specific difficulties of each type (cognitive, social, linguistic). Note: Timing problems can be treated as cognitive, since they involve processing and producing speech. |
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Definition
-Cognitive: ‘collective monologue’ instead of actually talking to each other; short attention span, don’t pay attention to other speaker’s utterance; lack of knowledge of the world, can’t understand other people’s speech
-Timing: successful timing requires listening/understanding, formulating relevant contribution, and producing that contribution at the right moment. Young children can’t do all this fast enough.
-Social: young children have low social status, often not given a chance to speak, not regarded as appropriate conversational partners.
-Linguistic: poor articulation makes them diff. to understand, they have limited lexicon and grammar. |
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Term
| According to Clark, what are 4 basic conditions that children must learn to observe in order to carry on a conversation? (p. 303) |
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Definition
-Speaker and addressee need joint focus, common ground
-Speakers must take into account what their addressee knows, shape utterances accordingly. (common knowledge)
-Speakers must choose speech acts that are appropriate for the meanings they intend to convey (choose the right speech act for interactional goals)
-Participants must listen to what others say so they can make appropriate, relevant contributions to the talk |
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Term
| What evidence is there that 2-year-olds can take into account what their addressee knows? |
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Definition
-Children know when to communicate new (not known to addressee) information vs old (known to addressee) information. Games involving child repeating instructions to mother, giving more info. If she wasn’t there when it was explained to the child.
-can repair language- if mom says “that’s a door- i mean, that’s a window”- knows door has been rejected.
-child gives more information to someone new who doesn’t know (stranger vs. mom) |
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Term
| Briefly describe the organization of mother-infant interactions (5 phases). |
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Definition
Initiation: M moves to baby’s line of visions, taps
Mutual orientation: M smiles, may touch baby
Greeting: baby smiles, limbs move, M moves, smiles
Play dialogue: M and baby vocalize
Disengagement: M silent, baby looks away |
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Term
| Freedle and Lewis found that infants must learn to establish an alternating rather than simultaneous pattern of vocalization with their mothers. What might be one reason why children of high SES (socioeconomic status) develop an alternating pattern earlier than low SES children? |
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Definition
| High SES mothers are more likely to pretend the child’s utterance is meaningful, and stop vocalizing when the baby vocalizes. So, the child learns to take turns earlier. |
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Term
| Research has shown that adults (in some cultures) help very young children carry on conversation. How do adults scaffold (provide a structure for) these early conversations? |
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Definition
| They scaffold the child’s turn-taking, Before the child can talk, they ask a question, then answer it, providing an example. The adults scaffold conversations: introduce topics, structure their turns to make it easy for the child to participate. They use clues that mark the ends of their turns, so the child knows when to come in. |
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Term
| What 4 steps did Ochs et al. find that adults and children use in constructing a topic-comment exchange in conversation? Be able to give some of the specific ways that they carry out Step 2 (i.e. try to get the addressee’s attention). |
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Definition
1. The speaker gives evidence of noticing some entity X, through nonverbal strategies (pointing, looking) or verbal strategies (referring to X with a label or deictic like that/there)
2. Speaker attempts to get the addressee to notice X, through nonverbal strategies (eye contact, pulling, showing/giving) or verbal strategies (“look at/see”)
3. (Sees x) Addressee offers evidence of noticing X, often by full or partial repeat of speaker, acknowledges that speaker has said something
4. (talk about x) Speaker or addressee provides or elicits additional info about X (topic has been established by steps 1-3) |
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Term
| In maintaining a topic in conversation, the content of one’s turn should be relevant to that of the prior turn. What did Ervin-Tripp discover about the relevance of young children’s turns? What is one very early strategy that Ochs’ twins used to make their turns relevant? |
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Definition
| -Ervin-Tripp found that young children’s relevance constraints are weak. Ochs’ twins used sound play to make turns relevant. Acted on prior utterances by modifying, extending, substituting |
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Term
| What is a script? How do scripts help children to keep a conversation going? |
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Definition
| -A script is a conceptual structure that describes appropriate sequences of events in a particular context. Requires real-world knowledge of typical events, like a birthday party. Scripts help keep conversation going because they can carry on longer about a topic that has a structure to it. |
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Term
| Repetitions are common in young children’s conversations. What are some of the functions that repetitions serve in children’s conversations? |
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Definition
-Priming: use of a word or construction active=creates it in the child’s mind, making it easier to “reuse” (parts of) an utterance that was just produced
-Acknowledgement
-Show uptake/ratification/acceptance of a new word
-establish a new topic
-turn respondent role back to one who asked a question
-verbal play, eg to return an insult
-learn grammatical structure
Practice: repetition gives a chance to practice unfamiliar words, grammatical constructions |
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Term
| Briefly describe the findings on young children’s intrusions into ongoing conversation. Here you should know the following: children’s intrusions into conversation are more successful when the topic is about the child; children leave long gaps between speakers; the more delayed an intrusion is, the more likely it is to be ignored; younger children have more overlaps when trying to take a turn; the younger a child is, the more likely s/he is to be ignored in a multi-party family conversation. |
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Definition
--Intrusions more likely to be relevant if the talk was about the child
-children leave long gaps between speakers (delayed turns are often ignored as irrelevant)
-Younger children overlap more when trying to take a turn
-Children had more trouble breaking in on an ongoing dyad
-The younger the child, the more likely to be ignored
-Have to learn the rules of conversation, especially on the phone
-Young children answer phone, don’t speak first
-Leave long pauses between turns
-Hang up without saying goodbye |
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Term
| Almost 50% of mother-infant conversations require some negotiation of meaning before the mother can understand what the baby is trying to communicate. Be able to describe what happens during a typical “negotiation” between mother and infant. |
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Definition
| Mother doesn’t initially understand what child wants, negotiation is necessary. The mother keeps going through conversational turns until they understand what the child wants. |
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Term
| What 3 factors predicted the success of an episode in Golinkoff and Gordon’s study? What changes did they find over time? |
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Definition
1. Infants signal to mother: wants object, offers food, wants action or label, etc. Wanting actions or labels increases over time as wanting objects decreases
2. Mother responds with statement (falling intonation) and/or action: reformulates child’s intent into words, or expands/repeats the words of the child (increases over time)
3. Infant accepts mother’s interpretation: stops signaling, relaxes tension, stops moving/vocalizing. Clearest form: accepts object mother offers, continues mother’s topic
other: changes over time: infant’s initial signal changes, mother responds more frequently. |
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Term
| What is Gleason’s “bridge hypothesis”? Be sure to clarify WHY fathers serve as a bridge between communicating with mothers vs. strangers (i.e. because they have difficulty understanding the child and therefore are more challenging communicative partners than mothers; this motivates the child to adapt to the father’s needs, as they will have to do with strangers). |
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Definition
| Fathers are less “tuned in” to their children’s speech and less able to understand. The father is therefore a more challenging communicative partner for the child than the mother, and acts as a bridge towards communicating with strangers. The child needs to understand that the father might have difficulty understanding the child, and the child has to adapt accordingly, which he might not have had to do as much with the mother. |
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Term
| How did Tomasello et al. define a communicative “breakdown”? Be able to define each type of breakdown. What is the difference between specific vs. non-specific requests for clarification? (Be able to give an example of each.) |
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Definition
A communicative breakdown: a turn or episode containing any of the following:
1. Request for clarification: Non-specific (what?/huh?), Specific (You want it where?), Confirmation check (red ball?)
2. Breakdown non-acknowledgement (parent ignoring a child utterance or question)
3. Breakdown topic shift (adult doesn’t understand child, shifts topic [or for no reason])
-fathers had more breakdowns, less specific in request for clarification, and more non-acknowledgement. mothers make more of an effort to clarify. |
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Term
| What differences did Tomasello et al. find in breakdowns in young children’s conversations with fathers vs. mothers? Know the differences in frequency, if any, between the different types of breakdowns. |
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Definition
| -Fathers had more breakdowns than mothers. More requests for clarification, twice as many non-acknowledgements. Fathers use more non-specific clarification requests such as “what?”, while the mothers preferred specific. When the child responded, the fathers would accept any clarification, while the mothers would persist and seek further clarification, such as clarifications of clarifications (“looped” response). |
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Term
| How did children respond to fathers’ vs. mothers’ requests for clarification? Know what a “looped” response is and who gave this kind of response. Be able to recognize the difference (if given sample exchanges) between a typical conversational exchange in which a father vs. mother requests clarification. |
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Definition
| Children responded equally often to mothers and fathers. looped response = request for clarification. |
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Term
| How did children respond to fathers’ vs. mothers’ non-acknowledgement breakdowns? Be able to recognize the difference (if given sample exchanges) between a typical conversational exchange in which a father vs. a mother has a non-acknowledgement breakdown. |
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Definition
| -When non-acknowledgement occurred, the child was much more likely to persist with the mother than with the father (51% vs 29%). Mothers almost never ignored the child on two successive attempts to get acknowledgement, but fathers often did. |
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Term
| Did the results of Tomasello et al. support the bridge hypothesis? What other interpretation(s) of their findings might there be? |
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Definition
-Yes. The bridge hypothesis is supported – the father is clearly a more challenging (less competent) communicative partner. Needs more clarification, more frequently fails to respond. Child needs to make more adjustments. Could teach the child what kind of adjustments strangers will need.
-alternative finding: others may just be less likely to communicate with kid. father may be less communicative partner. |
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Term
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Definition
| pairing of form and function (syntax + semantics) |
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Term
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Definition
| S= subject of intransitive verb. a=subject of transitive Verb. O= DO of transitive verb. |
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Term
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Definition
| a yes/no question. involves auxiliaries. |
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Term
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Definition
| a what, who, when, where, why, how question- involves auxiliary words |
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Term
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Definition
| no/never form that negates sentences. |
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Term
| Be able to define a construction and to describe/recognize the 4 common English constructions that Clark mentions (see slide). |
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Definition
Construction: pairing of form and function (MORE than the sum of component parts)
Form: syntactic pattern that forms a sentence
Function: meaning that the form is used to convey
4 constructions: 1. intransitive (x moves to y. the bird flew into the room). 2. transitive (x acts on/affects y. bobby broke the glass.). 3. double object (x causes y to receive z. mommy gave me the book) 4. caused motion (x causes y to move to z. bobby threw the food on the floor.) |
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Term
| Know some of the basic findings about children’s acquisition of verbs and constructions, such as: |
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Definition
that verbs and constructions are acquired together, with the child learning at the same time
which verbs go with which constructions; (kids are conservative in what they use. usually only when they’ve heard it.)
that the semantic class of a verb (e.g. motion verb) helps the child figure out what the verb
means, and this in turn helps the child figure out which constructions that verb can
be used with; (semantic bootstrapping- seeing that a verb is the same type of verb as something else- can figure out what scenarios that verb can be used in. know that they can use ‘run’ in same scenario as ‘walk’ by bootstrapping meanings)
that frequency in adult speech predicts which verbs children will acquire earlier; (will acquire word ‘eat’ faster than ‘contemplate’)
that use in diverse constructions in adult speech predicts whether a child will also use that
verb in diverse constructions. (if a verb is used in many scenarios, child will also use it in many scenarios- follows adult)
As children learn verbs, they also learn from adult speech which construction(s) each verb is used in. Children tend to be conservative, and only use the verbs in the constructions they’ve heard them used in. In adult speech, there is a strong correlation between the semantic class of a verb and the constructions in which the verb is used. Children can also infer from context what semantic type a new verb is (such as a motion verb) and use that to infer what constructions it’s likely to be used in (such as transitive motion) |
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Term
| preferred argument structure: What are the 3 grammatical types of arguments? |
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Definition
1. S = Subject of an intransitive verb
2. A = Subject of a transitive verbn
3. O = Direct object of a transitive verb |
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Term
| What referential form typically occurs in S, A, and O arguments? (Noun or pronoun?) |
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Definition
A = typically a pronoun (given information)
O = typically lexical nouns that “A” acts on (new information)
S = typicall a noun. (Clancy’s Korean findings-(subject of intransitive verb) = variable form/function: could be “I” or “you” performing various actions, or inanimate objects in various states)) |
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Term
| Where is new information usually found? given information? |
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Definition
| -New information typically in object role; given info typically in agent role |
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Term
| Be sure you understand that the relationship between the typical referential form used for S, A, and O arguments and the type of information expressed (new vs. given): |
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Definition
| Nouns are used to convey new info, pronouns or ellipsis (like spanish) to convey given information. This is because the listener must be able to identify who/what the form refers to, so new information requires a more explicit form of mention (noun) but given information can be expressed less explicitly, with a pronoun or ellipsis. |
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Term
| What did Clancy discover about Preferred Argument Structure in Korean acquisition? |
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Definition
A (subject of transitive verb) = given info, pronouns or ellipsis
O (object of transitive verb) = new info, lexical nouns
S (subject of intransitive verb) = (see above) only one core argument, variable form and function. Could be “I” or “you” performing various actions, or inanimate objects in various states |
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Term
| What conclusions can we draw about the relationship between syntax (grammatical roles S, A, and O), semantics (person, animacy, semantic roles) and pragmatics (given/new information) in acquisition? What are the implications of this relationship for the nativist view of autonomous syntax and language acquisition? |
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Definition
Syntax: 1. S (new or given pragmatics, semantics 1st, 2nd, 3rd person/animate/inanimate/agent/patient). 2. A (pragmatics given, 1st or 2nd person. human. agent.) 3. O (pragmatics often new. 3rd person. inanimate. patient)Conclusions: shows nativist view is wrong because function is combined with form. syntax is not autonomous.
Children acquire syntax (S/A/O roles), pragmatic functions (expressing given vs new info), and semantics (person, animacy, semantic roles) together
They don’t have or acquire “autonomous syntax” that is independent of semantics and pragmatics (as neither do adults)
Since they all correlate, children can use semantic and pragmatic patterns (functions) to help them acquire syntax (form)
Don’t need to postulate that there is an innate, autonomous syntactic module (Universal grammar) in an innate LAD (Language Acquisition Device) to explain how children acquire syntax. |
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Term
| What are the structural differences between questions (yes/no and wh-) vs. declaratives? |
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Definition
Yes/no have an aux word like them/do. often have an inverted word order.
wh- verbs are same grammatical order as yes/no plus a wh- word in front of the aux. HOW do you do.
Questions take “do” support: Does she like cookies? –must have an auxiliary verb (do, be), modal (can, may), or copula. (Word order of subject and auxiliary verb usually inverted)
Declarative keeps the SVO order: “she does like cookies”
“wh-“ questions add a “wh-“ word in front of the auxiliary. |
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Term
| What did Johnson discover about the transcription of wh- words and children’s pronunciation of them? |
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Definition
| Johnson found that 70% of early “what” questions consisted of “what’s this?” and “what’s that?”, although nearly 1/3 of these lacked any phonetic trace of the initial “wh-“ sound (Examples: [sæt], [sıs] ). but mother could interpret as ‘what’s that’/’what’s this’. |
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Term
| Describe the sequence of development that Johnson found for what questions. NOTE: Use the slide titled “Developmental changes”, NOT the slide titled “Klima and Bellugi’s analysis”. Review the frame-types that Johnson found so that you have an idea of what development looked like, but you don’t need to know the details, just that children build up frames by adding slots to the original what’s this/that? routine; they first construct the frame, later analyze the elements within the frame. |
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Definition
1. Children start with singular formulaic frame: “what’s that?”
2. Then they combine formulaic frames: “what’t that…one/thing/N/called”
3. Then they gradually analyzed elements in each formula: “what’s that” becomes “what’s _____”
kids build up frames by adding what/that routine. start with single frame. same progression found for every wh- word. |
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Term
| What are some of the errors that children make in the course of acquiring wh-questions? |
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Definition
The answer to this is in the “Klima and Bellugi’s analysis” slide relating to questions; look at the examples, see what they’re doing wrong from the perspective of the structural properties that (adult) questions should have.
state 1: no auxiliary
2: few auxiliary
3: more auxiliary, inversion in yes/no q’s but not wh questions. |
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Term
| Given the findings of Johnson’s study, what are some general conclusions that we can draw about the nature of acquisition? |
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Definition
-We need to analyze adult speech
-To understand development, we need detailed longitudinal data from individual children
-It is crucial to analyze the adult speech the child is hearing (what the child is doing will relate to what the adult is doing)
-We should expect and look for undergeneralization (children initially limited to fewer forms/functions than adults)
-Development is always gradual (ideally, data should be collected daily) |
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Term
| How do (English-acquiring) children initially express negation? |
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Definition
-no, with preverbal gestures.
-Preverbally, with headshakes, gestures, sensorimotor morphemes
-Then, individual negative terms, single-word utterances (no, allgone, off) |
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Term
| What are the structural differences between negative vs. affirmative sentences? |
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Definition
Affirmative: She likes/liked cookies
Negative: She doesn’t/didn’t like cookies. require an auxiliary or modal.
-Grammatical features of negative: negative sentences require auxiliary or modal tense and number marking attach to the auxiliary/modal or copula, not main verb
-negative form “not” follows auxiliary, modal or copula, and when contracted attaches to it |
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Term
| What are the two early types of negation that children use? (Exclamatory negations and predicate negations) Be able to give/recognize an example of each type. |
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Definition
-exclamatory: expressed with no, echoic, reject prior utterance
-predicate: internal (unanalyzed) don't, later not |
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Term
| What are some of the errors that children make in the course of acquiring sentential negation? (Look at the “Klima and Bellugi’s analysis” slide relating to negation; see how the examples differ from adult structural properties of negative sentences.) |
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Definition
-external negation: no/not + sentence (no your toy)
-sentence internal negation: negative element appears after subject, and before verb
-can't/do not are negative forms lacking their positive counterparts- child does not use 'can' or 'do'.
-negated auxiliaries/copulas are analyzed and have positive counterparts. (analyzed: don't is analyzed as do not) |
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Term
| What is a negative polarity item? Why do children use multiple negation, even if their parents do not? |
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Definition
(Answer: Consistency--multiple negation is produced by following a simple, consistent rule: negate everywhere possible within a sentence, e.g. Nobody doesn’t know nothing.)
-negate everything possible (nobody doesn't know nothing) |
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Term
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Definition
| putting one clause after the other (car driving; don't open) |
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Term
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Definition
| two sentences linked by a conjunction (the car is driving; SO don't open the door) |
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Term
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Definition
| one clause is constituent of the main clause (that he left surprised me) |
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Term
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Definition
| complement clause- functions as a constuent in the main clause (above example's 'that he left') |
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Term
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Definition
| embedded sentence that modifies a constituent in the main clause (the book I like is (I like is = relativization) |
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Term
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Definition
| each clause carries the same weight (and) |
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Term
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Definition
| one clause (the subordinate) depends on the other (the main) – they can't, because we are. |
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Term
| anti-interruption principle |
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Definition
| avoid interruption of linguistic units, relativization clauses are acquired later on. AIP causes relativization clauses(the book I LIKE IS) to be acquired later. |
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Term
| Minimal Distance Principle (MDP) |
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Definition
| closest noun phrase to the left of the embedded verb is the subject. |
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Term
| Order of Mention Principle |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of early relative clauses in children’s speech? |
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Definition
| To specify the entity referred to. Earliest ones are juxtaposed at the end of the sentence. |
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Term
| How do children initially add relative clauses to sentences? Do relativizers appear in children’s earliest relative clauses? |
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Definition
-juxtapose at end.
-no, later on. |
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Term
| What is the order of acquisition for relative clauses on subjects vs. relative clauses on objects? |
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Definition
| -relative ones come later. |
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Term
| Explain how Slobin’s anti-interruption principle explains this order. |
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Definition
-because they don't want it to be interrupted. If it interrupts, they think its wrong until they hear it enough in adult speech to know its wrong
-relative clause on subject will interrupt main clause, but relative clause on object will not. |
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Term
| Explain how information flow (where new vs. given information is expressed in sentences) explains the order of acquisition of relative clauses on subjects vs. objects. |
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Definition
| -subjects often express given info, so do not need to be specified with a relative clause. Proper names/pronouns are common in subject position. Things that need to be specified are more common in object position. Same as SAO. |
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Term
| If a child cannot yet produce relative clauses, what other syntactic strategies can they use to specify a referent? |
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Definition
| -prep phrases, adjectives, coordinations |
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Term
| What is the order of acquisition for subject vs. object complements? |
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Definition
| -object complements before subject. |
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Term
| Explain how Slobin’s anti-interruption principle explains this order. How does adult frequency of subject vs. object complements explain the same findings? Be able to give/recognize examples of sentences with subject vs. object complements and to predict which will be acquired first. |
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Definition
| -predicts that subject complements, which introduce an embedded clause which needs to be processed (???) see slide! |
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Term
| What is the Minimal Distance Principle? How does it explain children’s performance in acting out complex sentences with subject-control verbs like promise vs. object-control verbs like tell? How does the adult frequency of these two types of verb/complement constructions explain the same findings? |
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Definition
| -in infinitival complements, there is no overt subject for the verb in the complement clause. “bozo tells donald to jump up and down”. Who jumps? Donald jumps. Kids always chose noun phrase closest to embedded clause, even if bozo promises donald that he will jump. Always donald. |
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Term
| When children begin to produce sentences with two temporal clauses, how do they initially link the clauses together? |
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Definition
| -juxtaposition, then info flow. Know event first, then order of mention. |
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Term
| When children begin to produce sentences with two causally related clauses, how do they initially link the clauses together? |
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Definition
-juxtaposition, then 'and', then 'because', but 'because' may be used inappropriately.
Know that if is used for conjoined clauses in which the contingent event is possible but not certain, and when is used in cases where the contingent event is certain. |
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Term
| According to Reilly’s findings on conditionals, what is the first type of conditional that children acquire? What is the last type? How do young children respond to hypothetical “what if” questions? |
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Definition
-predictive 'when' about familiar objects.
-last type: counter-factuals
-what if - (?) |
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Term
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Definition
| any speech acts that attempts to direct, modify, control behavior |
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Term
| mitigation (in directives) |
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Definition
| save face (public self-image that every member of society has of themselves). Use politeness, indirect forms. |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| can be a form of politeness, but is a directive that doesn't outrightly say direction. (it's pretty hot in here, isn't it? For – open a window) |
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Term
| What six types of directives did Ervin-Tripp describe? Be able to give/recognize examples. |
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Definition
1. personal desire
2. problem statement
3. imperatives – two subordinates
4. embedded imperative- main verb follows a modal (can, would, could)
5. question directive
6. hinting |
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Term
| Briefly describe philosophers’ accounts of how an indirect speech act is interpreted, contrasting this with Ervin-Tripp’s explanation. |
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Definition
| -philosophers think it's done via inference, ervin says its formulaic- don't infer everything. |
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Term
| Know what types of directives children can use at different ages. |
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Definition
| -pre-verbal: gestures. Before 2 years, are telegraphic (saying want book, desire statements, mentioning goals. ) then questions, then hints at 4 years. Use titles and statements. 5-6: use elaborate, oblique strategims (he put the motorcycle in the jungle gym) |
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Term
| What are some of the factors that influence how likely a child is to be able to understand and comply with a directive? |
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Definition
| -explicitness, demand value (what's it worth to them), activity setting (is it something that naturally happens in this setting), training (its naptime- know this bc they've been trained to have it). Shows formulaeic vs. inference thing of ervin-tripp. |
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Term
| Describe the different forms of directives that the 2-year-old in Lawson’s research used when addressing children of different ages, adults, and her father vs. her mother? |
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Definition
-2 year old child used simple direct imperatives to other 2 year olds, imperatives with please or okay to 3 year olds, and questions, including permission requests, to 3 and 4 year olds.
-parents- repitition and politeness modifiers to her father (¾ of all directives) much more than to mother. |
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Term
| Describe Andersen’s methodology of “controlled improvisation”. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between a mitigated directive and an aggravated directive? How do young children mitigate a directive? How do they aggravate a directive? |
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Definition
-face?
-mitigate- politeness. Aggravate- do it now. |
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Term
| What are some linguistic strategies that young children use when attempting to persuade the addressee to comply with a di |
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Definition
| -usually rely on bargains and guarantees. “i promise!” older kids use offers, bargains, politeness. Boys- fair play, reason. Girls- more requests, indirect statements. |
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Term
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Definition
| any spoken speech. Level of linguistic structure above sentence. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| initiating event that sets story in motion |
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Definition
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| conclusion that shows impact of events on narrator |
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Term
| Describe the structure of young children’s earliest disputes. Be able to give/recognize an example. |
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Definition
| -assertion, contradiction (mine! No, mine!) |
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Term
| What are some linguistic strategies used by young children in their disputes? |
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Definition
| -echoing, implicit logic, proposed alternatives, insults, threats, justification. |
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Term
| In Dunn’s research, what kinds of conciliatory, “other-oriented” justifications did she find? What kinds of “self-oriented” justifications did she find? |
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Definition
-conciliatory: you give me x, I give you y.
-self: I have a headache, be quiet. |
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Term
| Did Dunn find individual differences in children’s propensity to argue? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the relationship between emotion (how upset the child was) and the use of reasoning in children’s disputes. |
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Definition
| -more emotion = less reason, less conciliatory. |
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Term
| We might expect that children and their mothers would use more “other-oriented” reasoning as they get older. What were Dunn’s findings on age and the frequency of “other-oriented reasoning? |
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Definition
| - as kids get older, other decreases. Lower frequency of conciliatory argument. Proportion of self-oriented in mother speech more than doubled. Moms expected better behavior as the kid got older, and argued more strongly in favor of their own position. |
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Term
| Did Dunn find that each child used one style of arguing with all types of addressees? What were her findings with respect to style of arguing and addressee? |
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Definition
| -no. different people, different kind of argument. |
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Term
| Why did Killen and Naigles conclude that children’s talk in disputes is not primarily negative? What positive functions did they say that disputes have in children’s interactions? |
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Definition
| -they're simple assertions and collaborations. Disputes are opportunities for kids to interact in positive social exchanges. |
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Term
| What are some of the “discourse markers” that can be found in children’s disputes? |
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Definition
-same as relativizing. Clauses, and, but, because, or, so, well.
-also: well, hey, now, then. |
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Term
| In Eisenberg & Garvey’s study of children’s disputes, which strategies were associated with successful resolution of disputes? Which strategies were not successful in resolving disputes? |
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Definition
| -basic 'no' was not successful. Most successful: offer to compromise, then additional proposal, counter-offer, gave a reason. |
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Term
| What 5 components did Labov say the full-fledged narrative has? Which parts of a narrative do chi |
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Definition
-AOCRC.
-early: action/resolution. Encode the most salient/portable events. Actual story.
-then orientation
-last: abstracts and coda. |
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Term
| Describe the evaluative function in narratives. What are some of the linguistic devices that narrators use to convey evaluation? Be able to identify them in a narrative. |
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Definition
| -evaluative function: why you're telling the story. Kid's story about beating a kid up with a rake- made himself the victim. Showed that story was about him not going to the hospital. Repeating statement. |
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Definition
| hemispheral dominance- right/left brained. |
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| if damage occurs earlier on, the other hemisphere compensates |
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Definition
| language damage bc of brain damage |
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Term
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Definition
| period during which you're able to easiest repair |
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Term
| Which side of the cerebral cortex is dominant for language in most (right-handed) people? Be able to describe the contralateral connections that exist between the body and the brain. |
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Definition
| -right controls left, left controls right. Know that some people (usually left-handers) have language lateralized in the right hemisphere. |
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Term
| Describe the functional asymmetry of the brain: what types of functions are the right and the left hemispheres specialized for? |
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Definition
| -right is creativity, music. Left: reading, analyzing, math, language. |
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Term
| Which hemisphere is primarily responsible for ASL signers’ use of language? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which hemisphere is primarily responsible for musicians’ processing of music? |
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Definition
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Term
| How can we explain these two findings? |
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Definition
| -music is more creative. Is a multiple-simultaneous type of input. Output and input. But experienced musicians process music with their left side. -signing on left. -right hemisphere also involved for early ASL signers. Is less of a thing that they have to think about- like learning first language. Code it as a language. |
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Term
| What did Mills et al. discover about the age of lateralization of language in their study of the distribution of ERPs in the brains of one-year-olds listening to words? |
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Definition
| ERP is right. At one year – one year five months, broadly distributed activity in left and right, interior and posterior. By 1:8, activity only in left hemisphere. |
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Term
What are the language areas of the brain? Be able to briefly describe the functions of each area (treat the angular gyrus and the supramarginal gyrus together). Know what language
function would be disrupted by damage to each area. Be able to identify Broca’s area and
Wernicke’s area on a diagram of the |
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Definition
-Broca's: lower edge of left frontal lobe. Near motor cortex.
-Wernicke's: back of temporal lobe, near top. |
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Term
| Describe a dichotic listening test, the typical results of the test (i.e. “right ear advantage”), and what the results show about how we process language in the brain. |
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Definition
| -you're given two words, a word in each headphone. Must say which one you hear first. |
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Term
| Briefly describe Broca’s aphasia vs. Wernicke’s aphasia. |
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Definition
-broca's: speech produced haltingly. But coherent. Youtube “tono tono”
-w: speech produced fluidly, but may not make sense. |
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Term
| What do: ERPs/PET scans/fMRIs measure? |
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Definition
| ERP: (electrical activity in the brain using electrodes)(pet- changes in blood flow in the brain. Increased brain activity requires more oxygen, and therefore greater blood flow.) (fMRI- same as pet, but in finer detail. |
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Term
| With PET scans and fMRIs, can we actually see the neural transmission of information in the brain? Do any of these technologies show the temporal sequence in which information is processed in the brain? |
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Definition
| no- they measure bloodflow. no. |
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Term
| Lenneberg argued for the existence of a critical period for language acquisition based on what 3 types of evidence? |
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Definition
| -for elasticity: many species have bio timetable for particular developments. Once these developments happen, its too late. Like ducks imprinting first moving object they see as mother. |
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Term
| Why is it difficult to draw conclusions about the existence of a critical period for language acquisition from feral and isolated children? |
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Definition
| -don't know if they remember when they were born, and can use some semblance of language, even if not much. |
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Term
| What did Bialystok and Hakuta find about the language abilities of second language learners?What two factors were related to their ability to make native-like grammatical judgments? |
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Definition
| -years of exposure to english correlated with better performance, regardless of age. Practice makes perfect. |
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Term
| Do scholars agree on whether there is a critical period for language acquisition? |
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Definition
| -no. all give different ages. Refer to sensitive period, when acquisition is better. |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of practices and ideologies. Observable behaviors, and beliefs stated in speech and behaviors. |
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Definition
| process by which kids are socialized into a certain culture through the language that they hear. |
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Definition
| a way of using a language that is characteristic of a culture or social group. |
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Term
Be able to describe Japanese communicative style with respect to the following values:
ideologies about talk; intuitive, indirect speech; harmony and conflict avoidance;
who has primary responsibility for the success of communication (speaker or hearer); empathy; conformity (i.e. appropriate behavior); and “amae” |
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Definition
-intuitive, non-verbal communication is valued more highly than explicit verbal communication. talk associated with lower status in japanese. Talk regarded as potentially deceptive. Verbal argumentation not seen as a way to arrive at truth. Superficial people use talk to confuse, deceive. Traditional verbal formulas may convey the opposite of what is intended- the polite 'I have nothing' said before offering food to guest. To foreigners, seems like mind-reading.
-burden of conversaitonal success falls on listener- must figure out what listener means. In usa, speaker must portray what they mean clearly and explicitly.
-empathy- if you know how other person feels, can act on it without explicit verbal communication.
-conformity: intuitive convo works better if everyone knows how to act.
-dependency- how people indulge one another.
-typical relationship: between mother and child. |
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Term
| What are some of the Japanese cultural values that Clancy found in her study of Japanese mothers’ speech to their two-year-old children? How did the mothers socialize these values in their speech to their young children? |
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Definition
| -wouldn't say no- just offer hints as to how they should be acting. Don't use negatives. Not saying 'don't do that'. Just saying 'nobody else is doing that. |
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Term
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
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Definition
| what input goes into to create output of grammar of language. |
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Term
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Definition
| idea that kids have the same linguistic categories/features as adults do. No development whatsoever. |
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Term
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Definition
| specific ling categories and ling principles that mature on a biological timetable. |
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Definition
| features of diff languages, like pro-drop |
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Definition
| universal grammar develops on a timetable |
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Term
| Language-Making Capacity (LMC) |
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Definition
| cognitively-based innate procedure for the construction of grammar. |
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Definition
| what makes up the LMC. Learning systems. |
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Definition
| Slobin claimed that there is a universal set of semantic notions, such as Agent and Patient, that are cognitively privileged- could be innate or based on the child's early experiences with the environment or both. |
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Term
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Definition
| forms and meanings that should be acquired early with few errors. Kids all start out with same set of basic conceptual preferences for id'ing, storing linguistic forms. |
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Term
| What are 4 essential components that every acquisition theory has? |
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Definition
| child's innate endowment (nature- what kid is born with). Environment (nurture- what kid is exposed to). Acquisition mechanisms (how acquisition happens). Theory of adult language (what needs to be acquired). |
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Term
| Discuss the relationship/balance among these 4 components. |
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Definition
| are inter-related. Nature vs. nurture-one emphasized over the other. Acquisition mechanisms are postulated depending on view of nature vs. nurture. Theory of adult language- most important- grammar as set of form-based rules, syntax as autonomous, innate universal grammar, etc. |
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Term
| Explain how one’s theory of adult language influences how the role of the child’s innate endowment, the role of the environment, and acquisition mechanisms are conceptualized in one’s theory of language acquisition. |
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Definition
| Most important theory of language acquisition. If syntax is viewed as autonomous, then it's seen as more difficult to learn from adult speech- more likely to be innate. If there's innate universal grammar, then grammatical rules should apply to all languages, and be abstract. |
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Term
| Be able to sketch and briefly describe Chomksy’s “instantaneous” model of the logical problem of language acquisition. |
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Definition
Doesn't address acquisition as a process taking place over time.
Primary linguistic data (input) → language acquisition device (LAD) → grammar (output) |
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Term
| What facts and assumptions led Chomsky to conclude that the categories and principles of adult syntax must be innate? Which assumption has been disproved? |
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Definition
| It's species-general, species-specific, acquired spontaneously, acquired early, input is degenerate, syntactic rules are too abstract. Degenerate input (ungrammatical) is not true. |
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Term
| What is Universal Grammar? What is it thought to include? |
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Definition
| The child can acquire syntax because he already possesses innate grammatical knowledge. Language Acquisition Device incorporates Universal Grammar. UG includes specific linguistic categories (noun, verb), abstract linguistic principles, parameters with settings for different types of languages. There is no consensus on UG. |
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Term
| What are some criticisms of Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition? |
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Definition
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Term
| Briefly describe two levels of modularity that have been proposed. |
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Definition
| 1. the human mind consists of distinct modules (cognition, language, etc). 2. human language consists of distinct modules (left hemisphere = syntax. Assumes autonomy of syntax). |
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Term
| Be able to contrast Chomsky’s notion of LAD with Slobin’s notion of LMC. |
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Definition
| Slobin: Language-Making Capacity (LMC)- kids are born with a universal cognitivey-based LMC, in deliberate contrast to LAD. Has a set of cognitive Operating Principles- cognitively based procedures for the construction of grammar- self-instructions for language acquisition (like “avoid exceptions). Analyzed what kids take a log time to learn/make errors on while learning. Does not include innate linguistic information (like linguistic categories and principles). |
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Term
| What are some of the Operating Principles that Slobin proposed? |
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Definition
| Pay attention to the ends of words, order of words, morphemes. Avoid exceptions, avoid interruption of linguistic units. |
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Term
| What are some criticisms of Slobin’s theory of language acquisition? |
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Definition
| Was strongly nativist (innate human capacities), non-modular, self-instruction format, circularity (data used to explain data- no independent evidence) and was mere description, not theoretical. |
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Term
| What does a discourse-functional theory of language acquisition propose about what is and isn’t innate? |
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Definition
| Adult grammar arises from discourse historically (frequent forms become grammatical morphemes). Grammar cannot be separated from lexicon |
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Term
| In a discourse-functional theory, what types of evidence are available to the child? |
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Definition
| Positive and negative. Positive = the forms and functions they experience in the surrounding environment. Negative: adult responses to the child's productions. |
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Term
| What are some of the learning mechanisms that have been proposed? |
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Definition
Children form mental representations of grammatical forms and functions through learning.
-Rote learning: memorization- but doesn't account for things like adding morphemes.
-Analogy
-Rules |
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Term
| Be able to compare and contrast 3 theories of language acquisition—Chomsky’s, Slobin’s, and discourse-functional theory (e.g. Clancy’s)—with respect to each of the 4 components of acquisition theory. |
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Definition
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