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Introductory Psychology: Study Guide: Exam Two
Learning, Memory, Cognition, Language, Motivation, Social Psychology
91
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
11/14/2011

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Term
Conditioning
Definition
Involves learning associations between events that occur in an organism's environment.
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
Also known as Pavlovian conditioning.  A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
Term
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition
A previously neutral stimulus that has through conditioing acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.  Builds on a response that's automatically triggered by a stimulus.
Term
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Definition
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
Term
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Definition
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs within previous conditioning.
Term
Acquistion
Definition
Refers to the initial stage of learning a new response tendency.
Term
Stimulus Generalization
Definition
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the orginal.
Term
Stimulus Discrimination
Definition
When an organsim that has learned a respose to a specific stimulus doesn't respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similiar to the original.
Term
Extinction
Definition
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.
Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposurfe to the conditioned stimulus.
Term
Observational Learning
Definition
When an organism's responding is influenced by the observaation of others, who are called models.
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
Edward Thorndike.  Performance is strengthened if it's followed by a rewarf and weakened if it's not.
Term
Positive Reinforcers
Definition
When a response is strengthened because it's followed by the presentation of rewarding stimulus.
Term
Negative Reinforcers
Definition
When a response is strengthened because it's followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Term
Presentation of a Positive Reinforcer (Reward Training)
Definition
Punishment takes the form of adding an aversive stimulus.
Term
Presentation of a Negative Reinforcer (Punishment)
Definition
When an event following a respomse weakens the tendency to make that response.
Term
Punishment
Definition
When an event following a responmse weakens the tendency to make that response.
Term
Operant Chamber/ Skinner Box
Definition
A small enclosure in which an animal can make specific response that's systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.  Designed by B.F. Skinner for testing ideas about instrumental/ operant conditioning.
Term
Shaping
Definition
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximates of a desired resonse.
Term
Schedules of Reinforcement
Definition
A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
When an event following response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
Term
Continous Reinforcement
Definition
When every instance of a dsignated response is reinforced.
Term
Partial Reinforcement
Definition
The response is reinforced only some of the time.
Term
Fixed Ration
Definition
The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.
Term
Variable Ratio
Definition
The reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses.
Term
Fixed Interval
Definition
The reinforver is given for the girst response that occurs after a fixed interval time has elapsed.
Term
Variable Interval
Definition
The reinforcer is giben for the first response after a variable time interval hsa elapsed.  The intercal length varies around a predetermined average.
Term
Flashbulb Memory
Definition
Unusually, vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events.
Term
Sensory Memory
Definition
Perserves information in its original sensory form for a bried time, usually only a fraction of a second.
Term
Working Memory
Definition
Limited capacity memory store that can maintain unrehearsed information for 20-30 seconds.  Usually 7 plus or minus 2 items.
Term
Short Term Memory
Definition
Limited capacity store that can maintain unreheaersed information for up to about 20 seconds.
Term
Long Term Memory
Definition
An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
Term
Imagery
Definition
The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered can also be used to enrich encoding.  Storing new information by converting it to mental pictures.
Term
Mnemonics
Definition
Help a person form memory connections,  Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devises in aiding memory.  The more meaning an item has to the individual the better it is rememebered.
Term
Chunking
Definition
Combing small bits of information into larger chunks.
Term
Acronyms
Definition

My dear aunt sally: Multiple, divide, add, subtract.

Never eat shredded whear: North, east, south, west.

Term
Storage
Definition
Maintaining encoded information in memory over time.
Term
Iconic Memory
Definition
Fast decaying store of visual information (a second or less)
Term
Echoic Memory
Definition
Fast decaying store of auditory information (5 seconds or less).
Term
Short Term/ Working Memory
Definition
A working memory is an active maintenance of information in short term storage.  Example: Chess player visualizing what could happen by visualizing the chess board in head.
Term
Long- Term Potentiation
Definition
A long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.
Term
Explicit
Definition
Whenpeople consciously or intentionally retrieve past expereinces. Example: I remember when...
Term
Implicit
Definition
When past experiences influence later behavior/ performance, even if people aren't trying to recollect or are aware they are remembering them.
Term
Retrieval
Definition
Recover information from memory storage.
Term
Recall
Definition
Requires participants to reproduce information on their own without any cues.
Term
Recognition
Definition
Requires participant to select previously learned informatiom from an array of options.
Term
Relearning
Definition
Requires a participant to memorize information for a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before.
Term
Interference
Definition
The theory proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.
Term
Mental Representations
Definition

1. Concepts

2. Propositions

3. Schemas

4. Mental Models

5. Images

6. Cognitive

Term
Concepts
Definition
Category of object with similar properties.
Term
Propositions
Definition
Combining concepts to express a relationship. Jason dumped Heather.
Term
Schemas
Definition
Sets of closely related propositions.  Cars have keys, motors, brake pedals.  Picnics are in the summer.
Term
Mental Models
Definition
Arrangement of objects that guide iour interactions with them.
Term
Images
Definition
Mental representation of visual information.
Term
Cognitive Maps
Definition
Mental model showing familiar parts of an environment.  Finding a flaslight during a power outage. 
Term
Heuristics
Definition
Speedier but more error prone educated guess based on past experience.
Term
Availability Heuristic
Definition
Estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory of events comes readily to mind we thing such events are common.
Term
Representative Heuristics
Definition
Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes may lead to ignoring other information.
Term
Framing
Definition
The way an issue is posed whih can affect decisions and judgments.
Term
Confirmation Bias
Definition
A tendency to search for information that supports out beliefs and to ignore everything that would debunk it.
Term
Functional Fixedness
Definition
The tendency to think of things only in their usual functions hinders problem solving.
Term
Mental Set
Definition
Tendency to approach a problem in a way that was successful in the past.
Term
Morphemes
Definition
The smallest unit that carries meaning in language.
Term
Phonemes
Definition
Smallest distinctive sound unit in language.
Term
Grammar
Definition
The system of rules that enables us to communicate with others.
Term
Syntax
Definition
The rules for combing words into grammatically sensible sentences.
Term
Motivation
Definition
An accumulation of drive, incentive and urge.
Term
Instinct
Definition
Behavior, characteristic of a species, possessed by all member of the species.
Term
Drive Reduction Theory
Definition
Says that a need results in a drive, which motivates the organsim to satisfy the need and go back to homeostasis.
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
The body's return to a balanced state.
Term
Set-Point
Definition
Refers to a certain level of body fat that our bodies strive to maintain constant throughout our lives.
Term
Attitudes
Definition
A fairly stable evaluation of something adds good or bad that makes a person think, feel or behave positively or negativvely about some person, group or social issue.
Term
Mere Exposure Effect
Definition
Changes in a person's behavior due to another person's presence.
Term
Implicit Attitudes
Definition
Implicit theories of personality; Beliefs about what kinds of behaviors are associated with particular traits and which traits usually go together, used to develop expectations about people's behavior.
Term
Priming
Definition
Activating particular associations in memory.
Term
Situational Attributions
Definition
Attributions that explain someone's behavior in terms of the circumstances rather than aspects of the person.
Term
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition
The tendency to attribute behaviors to a person's internal qualities while underestimating situational influences.
Term
Streotypes
Definition
Schemas that are often negative and used to categorize complex groups of people.
Term
Self- Fulfilling Prophecy
Definition
Beliefs about how a person will behave that actually makes the expected behavior more likely.
Term
Sterotype Threat.
Definition
Performance changes if "primed" (reminded) about a sterotype of ome's group.  Sterotypes do affect actual performance both positvely and negatively.
Term
Social Loafing
Definition
A pattern in which people working together on a task generate less total effort than they would have if they had each worked alone.
Term
Deindividuation
Definition
A state in which an individaul in a group experiences a weakened sense of  personal identity and diminished self awareness.
Term
Milgram's Experiments
Definition
"Fake Shock" experiemnts, which studied the tendency to obey authorty figures.
Term
Foot In The Door Effect
Definition
Getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later.
Term
Compliance
Definition
A change in behavior in response to a request.
Term
Groupthink
Definition
A pattern of thinking that occurs when cohesive group minimizes or ignores members' differences of opinion.
Term
Group Polarization
Definition
 A pattern of thinking that occurs when cohesive group minimizes or ignores members' differences of opinion.
Term
Bystander Intervention
Definition
Bystander effect is one reason why people fail to help strangers in distress: The larget the group a person is in, the less likely he is to help, partly because no one in the group thinks it is up to him to act.
Term
Stanford Prison Experiment
Definition
Phillip Zimbardo's study of the effct of roles of behavior.  Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison.  They study was ended early because of the "guards" role induced cruelty.
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