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Definition
not based on first-hand observations
hose usually accepted without question: |
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| Examples of non empirical knowing accepted without question. |
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i. authority
ii. tradition
iii. internally generated beliefs |
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| axiomatic-deductive reasoning |
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Definition
| those open to critique and questioning: |
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| Examples of axiomatic-deductive |
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Definition
| e.g., mathematics, logic) |
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| based on direct, first-hand observations) |
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| Examples of empirical accepted without question |
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i. common (proverbial) sense
ii. life experiences (unique/shared)
iii. evaluative (aesthetics, ethics, personal taste) |
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| examples of empirical open to crituque. |
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Definition
i. physical science (e.g., physics, astronomy, chemistry)
ii. life sciences (e.g., zoology, botany, genetics, physiology)
iii. Social science (e.g., psychology, sociology, anthropology) |
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Definition
| specific (hence, limited) ways of knowing,that are ultimately based on empirical observations. |
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| reasoning from premises, axioms or postulates to conclusions |
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i.major premise: (All humans are mortal)
ii.minor premise: (Socrates is human)
iii.conclusion: (Socrates is mortal) |
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| Rule of the Excluded Middle |
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Definition
| (Principle of Contradiction): If A and B are mutually exclusivestates or propositions then A implies not B (~B), and B implies not A (~A). E.g., A: “John is at least 50 years old.” and B: “John is less than 50 years old.” cannot both be true; if one of the two states or propositions is true, the other must be false. |
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Definition
A≡B and B≡C implies A≡C.
“John’s only sister is a single woman.” and
“A single woman is one who has no husband.” implies that
“John’s only sister is a woman without a husband.” |
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Term
| d. Rule of Contraposition: |
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Definition
| If A implies B is true, then ~B implies ~Aalso must be true. |
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| In deductive logic: if the premises are true and the reasoningis valid, |
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Definition
| then the conclusions MUSTbe true (100% validity). |
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Term
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Definition
| proceeding from (several) particularobservations to generalrules or laws.Unlike deductive reasoning, inductivereasoning cannot not yield ironclad true conclusions but only probably true ones. |
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| Why is axiomatic-deductive opened? |
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Definition
| To find errors and questions to the truth |
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Definition
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| has to be replicated the results |
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| test it (also has to be disconfirmed) |
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| true by defintion to be disconfirmable if there is potential to be disconfirmed. |
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Term
| What are the goals of science? |
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Definition
a. observebehaviors
b. predictbehaviors
c. find causes of behaviors
d. explainbehaviors |
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Term
| Types of scientific research |
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Definition
a. pure or basic:
b. applied or practical: |
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| emphasis on discovering new questions or new scientific puzzles to solve. tries to understand how something works |
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| emphasis on finding solutions to existing problems or concerns. |
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relation between explanation and observation:
Observations -> Explanation |
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| Descriptions -> (induction) Theoretical account |
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Relation between explanation and observations:
Theories -> Expected observations |
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| Explanations -> (deduction) predictions |
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Definition
a) formulating theories (explanations)
b) test theories empirically once they are formulated |
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Definition
a) explain current and prior empirical findings/observations
b) predict (via deductive reasoning) what new observations should be found in future tests of the theory. |
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Term
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Definition
formal statements relating a given theoretical proposition to a given empirical
observation statement.
Can be inductive or deductive |
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Term
| Sources of Research Ideas/Hypotheses |
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Definition
a. common sense, proverbial knowledge
b. naturalistic observations
c. theory via deduction
d. intuitions, dreams, hypnogogic-pompicstates, bursts of insight
e. prior research, published articles, empirical and theoretical reviews (e.g., Psych. Abstr., Psych. Bull., Psych. Rev., Ann. Rev. Psychol.)
f. applied problems
g. experience in doing research/ apprenticeship |
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| A characteristic,feature, or aspect of an object, action, or situation/setting |
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| Important role in replicabilityof measurements and observations |
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Operational definition:
Two types/purposes |
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Definition
i. measurement of variables: what is being observed?/ how are observations to be made?
ii. experimental manipulation of variables |
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Term
| There is no single correct or right operational definition. True or False |
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Definition
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Term
| Sources of data (measurements and observations) depend on operational definition |
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Definition
i. physical measures: e.g., height, weight, age
ii. physiological measures: e.g., EEG, EMG, heart rate, GSR
iii. behavioral measures: e.g., number of responses, speed of response, accuracy of response
iv. self-report measures: e.g., personality assessments, subjective ratings |
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Term
| subject variable confound |
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Definition
| individual differences, these are characteristics of individuals |
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| potential) problem posed to experimental method: possibility of confounds |
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Definition
a) subject-variable confounds
b) treatment confounds |
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Definition
| Can only be used to describe or predict; cannot be used to draw causal inferences |
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| Uses for correlational method. |
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Definition
a) exploratory studies
b) studies in which experimental cannot be used
c) establishing relations between measured predictor and criterion variables
d) descriptive research: e.g., surveys, behavioral observations, case studies,
archival studies, psychological assessments |
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Term
| iii. (Potential) problem posed to correlationalmethod: |
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Definition
| possibility of intervening, third variable |
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Term
| the closer the Random Error is to 0, |
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Definition
| the more reliable the measure. |
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Term
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Definition
| ≡“True Value” + Random Error; |
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| Reliability depends on stability and consistency of: |
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Definition
henomenon/object being measured
ii. measurement device / apparatus
iii. measurement procedure |
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| Rule: Same/similar apparatus and procedures applied to same / similar phenomena or object will |
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Definition
| yield similar measured values |
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c. Examples of:
i. physical variable such as length |
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Definition
a) object: your notebook
b) measuring device: a ruler
c) measuring procedure: line up one end of notebook with one end of the ruler and record ruler value found at other end of the notebook. |
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| examples of psychological variable such as shyness |
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Definition
a) object: a particular person
b) measuring device: a trained observer
c) measuring procedure: observe the number of eye contacts, measure the total duration of eye contacts |
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Term
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Definition
| assesses consistency/stability of measure over time |
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| alternate-form reliability: |
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Definition
| assesses extent to which different versions of a measure yield results that are consistent with each other |
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Term
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Definition
| assesses whether or not one part of a measure yields results consistent with another part. |
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Term
| what's part of interneal consistency? |
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Definition
i. split-half reliability
ii. odd-even reliability
iii. item-total reliability (item analysis) |
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Term
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Definition
| extent to which raters agree in their observations. |
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Term
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Definition
| ≡“True Value” + Constant Error + Random Error; |
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Term
| the closer the Constant Error is to 0, |
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Definition
| the more accurate the measure. |
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Term
| Measures can be accurate without being reliable There can be a large random error and a small constant error. |
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Definition
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| Measures can be reliable without being accurate. There can be a large constant error and a small random error. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| on the face of it conceptual and operational definition of variable are nearly identical. |
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| the degree to which one measure (the criterion measure) is related to another measure (the predictor measure) of the same trait, ability |
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Definition
| the degree to which a measurement instrument and procedure actually assess a theoretical construct. |
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Term
| Examples of theoretical constructs: |
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Definition
intelligence, Introversion-Extroversion,
Androgeny, Motivation. |
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Term
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Definition
i. present whenever the measurement procedure changes the behavior
to be measured. Therefore,
ii. is a threat to validity |
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