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| method of investigation of (in)voluntary actions, brain, nervous system, endocrine system, and of mental processes |
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biological
behavioral
cognitive
whole-person
developmental
socio-cultural |
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| observe, theorize, observe again |
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| characteristics of scientific research |
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| empirical, quantitative, predictive, replicable |
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| 5 steps of scientific research |
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1. develop hypothesis
2. perform a test
3. gather objective data
4. analyza results
5. publish, criticize, replicate results |
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| random selection, self-reporting, sample vs. population, biases can limit results |
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| uncontrolled study, gather info about a relationship, correlation=variable (r) on a scale b/w -1 to 1 |
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| specialty of psychology that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes |
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-46 chromosomes in each nucleus
-tightly coiled structures on which genes are organized |
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| long complex molecule organized as a double helix |
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-functional unit of a chromosome
-composed of 4 nucleotides
-thousands in each chromosome
-30,000 total in humans
-each gene specifies a single protein |
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observable traits (how genes are expressed)
-dominant vs. recessive
-impact of parental environment
-impact of environment during development |
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-origin of species
-natural selection - those who ADAPT best to their environment |
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| network of neurons that extend through the body |
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| carry messages to the brain |
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| carry messages from the brain |
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carry messages between nerve cells
-brain and spinal cord mostly composed of these |
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| receiving portion of neuron |
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-contain's cell's DNA in neuron
-makes decisions about cells "firing" messages |
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| sending portion of neuron |
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-support cells of neuron
-form myelin sheath that cover axons (protect and make more efficient)
-help for new synapses
-respond to injury |
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-electrical neuron response
-at rest inside axon the neuron is more negatively charged than the outside |
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-fire electrical impulses down axon
-positively charged ions rapidly flow into the cell, ions pump them out
-all or none
-absolute refractory period |
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| cell membranes separated by synaptic cleft |
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-end of axon
-contain synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) |
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-release of neurotransmitters from axon terminal
-binds to receptor site on receiving cell dendrite
-activity of NT halted via chemical breakdown or reuptake into axon terminal |
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nervous system's ability to change with development and experience
-birth-maturation
-growth of dendrites and axons
-creation of new synapses
-pruning (neural cells die off)
-myelination |
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-improved performance of synapses
-enriched environments expand axon and increase branching of dendrites |
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| peripheral nervous system |
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| sensory input, muscle movement |
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-sympathetic (active during arousal, activates fight or flight responses - heart rate, respiration, perspiration)
-parasympathetic division (active during rest and digestion)
-work in opposition to each other (when one is active the other is passive) |
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-master gland controls other bodily glands by secreting pituitary hormoes
-under control of hypothalamus
-growth hormone
-part of endocrine system |
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regulates metabolism
-endocrine system |
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-adrenaline and cortisol
-generates arousal
-endocrine system |
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| electroencephalograph (EEG) |
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Definition
-records brains waves (electrical patterns)
-big picture, not specific insight to portions of brain |
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-electrical probes
-structural neuro-imaging - computing tomography (CT) = 3-D reconstruction of 2-D ray slices |
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| positron emission topography (PET) |
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Definition
-shows areas of high glucose metabolism associated with brain activity
-type of brain scan |
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| measures increases in blood oxygen levels, indicating increased neural activity |
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| magnetic stimulation and recording |
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Definition
-magneto encephalography (MEG)
-measures tiny magnetic fields to detect neural activity |
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| brain stem and cerebellum |
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| drive vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion, balance |
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| -emotions, complex motives, increase memory abilities |
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| enables reasoning, planning, creating, problem solving, language |
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| automatic control of breathing, heart rate, blood pressure |
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| sensory and motor conduct between brain stem and cortex |
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| regulates sleep, connects cortex and cerebellum |
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-emotional center of the brain
-networked with autonomic nervous system
-influences blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate and perspiration rate, and endocrine system
-hunger and thirst
-info about internal state |
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-monitors blood to determine and maintain internal body states
-controls endocrine system
-emotions (pleasure and reward) |
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| involved in memory and emotion particularly fear and aggression |
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| involved in establishing long term memories |
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| thick gray matter covering of the cerebrum, carries on thinking and perceiving |
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| 2 walnut shaped halves of cerebrum connected by corpus collosum |
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-prefrontal cortex
-language, processing, memory, executive functions
-motor cortex - sends signal to muscles
-mirror neurons - mimicry and empathy |
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| -perception of space (body, object, and speech location) |
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| touch pressure, temperature, pain |
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| visual cortex, temporal lobe, auditory cortex |
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| tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions |
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condition in which a split brained patient has a separate consciousness in each hemisphere
-split brain to help with epilepsy - corpus callosum is cut |
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| reception of stimulations from the environment creating a pattern of nerve impulses to the brain |
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| -the brain senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert stimulation into the language of the nervous system: neural impulses |
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-specialized cells that react to specific stimuli
-sensory adaptation - response strength declines very rapidly |
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| conversion of external energies into a nervous system signal |
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| bundles of neurons that carry information from the sense organs to the brain |
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| -amount of stimulus energy necessary for detection in 50% of trials (signal photon in darkness) |
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-muscles that modify the amount of light admitted
-colored by combination of 2 pigments |
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| opening admits light (dilation contraction) |
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| takes signals from the eye to the brain where it can be processed |
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-receptor cells (rods and cones)
-contain photo pigments that change on exposure to light |
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Definition
-axons leave the retina and form the optic nerve
-travels to the rest of the brain |
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3 types of cones
-each type responds to 1 primary color of light
-color vision begins with stimulation of diff. types of cones by light of diff. wavelength
-white light is all colors |
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Definition
| -bipolar cells excited by one color of light are inhibited by the complementary colors |
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| difficulty distinguishing colors in low light situations |
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| dichromatic color blindness |
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-red-green vision
-common among males |
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-object recognition defect
-damage to higher visual cortical areas |
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| -above chance visual performance of cortically blind individuals and damage to primary vision cortex |
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| -communication between brain areas that are close to each other but process different sensations |
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-emphasizes characteristics of the stimulus
-sensory inputs processed individually and objects are built up from these details |
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-emphasizes characteristics of the perceiver
-brain organizes sensory |
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| cells in the cortex specialize in detection of specific stimulus features |
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problems: power disappears when threat of punishment does
-rewards can override
-triggers escape or aggression behavior
-teaches to use aggression
-creates anxiety |
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Definition
-no delay
-consistent
-limited in duration and intensity
-logical consequence
-limited to situation
-no mixed messages
-alternate (reinforceable) behaviors available
-negative punishment used |
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-competence vs performance
-what we know how to do vs what we do
-organisms can learn w/o learning being directly observable and w/o reinforcement
-Toman and rat experiment |
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-observation of a behavior = copied
-Bandura and children experiments (aggressive adults = aggressive children) |
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-Kohler and chimps
-innate ability to solve problems |
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-information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information
-memory illusion = false but convincing memory
-memory is reconstructive
-info undergoes systematic changes as it is processed |
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-info on which attention is focused
-info in which we are interested
-info that arouses emotionally
-into that fits with our previous experiences
-info that we rehearse |
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-encoding
-storage
-retrieving |
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| -mental work space where we sort and encode info before adding it to more permanent storage |
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-limited duration (<20 seconds)
-limited capacity |
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| -organizing info into meaningful grouping to extend span of STM |
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-repeating info to extend duration
-maintenance rehearsal - repeating stimuli in original form
-elaborative rehearsal - linking stimuli in meaningful way |
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-permanent store of info
-large capacity
-explicit (intentionally recalled) memory
-implicit (not deliberately remembered) memory |
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-retrieval failure caused by shifting or focus of attention elsewhere
-change blindness |
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-forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
-tip of the tongue phenomenon
-not recognizing a person in an unfamiliar setting |
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| -memory or fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but they are associated with the wrong time place or person |
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| -process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion |
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-an attitude, belief, emotion or experience that distorts memories
-expectancy bias: tendency to remember events as consistent with our expectations
-self consistency bias: remembering ourselves as more consistent than we really are |
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| -memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind |
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| cognitive process in which the brain uses info from senses, emotions and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts |
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| -mental categories that organize knowledge |
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cluster or related concepts that provides a framework for thinking about objects events or ideas
-school |
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-cluster of knowledge about sequences of interrelated, specific events and actions expected to occur in particular setting
-going to class |
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| -mental representation of visual concept |
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-problem solving procedures or formulas
-guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly
-can be used in complex or subjective problems |
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-cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
-do not guarantee correct solution |
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-tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used successfully for a previous problem
-inhibits generation of alternate approach |
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| -difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose could be used for another |
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| -using unnecessary restrictions, not thinking outside the box |
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| -ignoring or finding fault with info that does not fit our opinions while seeking info with which we agree |
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| -tendency to believe that one could have predicted an event in advance |
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| -faulty heuristic strategy cause by relying too heavily (anchoring) on one piece of info |
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| -faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that once something is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category |
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| -faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind |
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| -too many choices can interfere with effective decision making, sometimes to the point of immobilizing |
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| sadness, joy, disgust, anger, fear, surprise, contempt |
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| real - inwards turning of mouth corners, dropping of eyelids and crinkling of eye corners |
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| humans experience a small number of biologically determined emotions that can combine in complex ways |
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emotions are feelings caused by autonomic and motor reactions to perceptual stimuli
-we don't flee b/c we're afraid, we're afraid b/c we flee
-bodily reactions necessary for subjective feelings |
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-emotions are provoking events which cause bodily reactions and feelings simultaneously
-we flee AND are afraid
-response to perceptual stimuli |
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-events provoke arousal
-emotions based on appraisals |
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-events are responded to with a cognitive appraisal
-appraisal causes both emotion and phsyiological response
-emotions involve evaluations of situations and intents |
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| biological mechanisms behind emotions |
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Definition
-limbic system
-cerebral cortex
-nervous system
-hormones |
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-quick response to cues
-brain circuitry operates automatically
-implicit memory |
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-slower generation of emotion
-explicit memory |
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-ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotion
-empathy, emotional regulation, self awareness, social awareness, relationship/conflict management |
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-difficulty identifying or distinguishing feelings
-difficulty describing feelings to others
-lack of imagination, intuition, empathy |
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-gives energy and direction to behavior
-connects observable behavior to internal states
-accounts for variability in behavior
-explains perseverance despite adversity
-can relate behavior to biology |
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-view that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors
-fixed action patterns |
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-homeostasis - body's tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition to promote survival
-biological needs create drives |
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-motivation is primarily unconscious
-biological energy experienced as drives
-libido, aggression, power, attachment
-objects of drives established in childhood, satisfaction of these drives may be intolerable |
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-behavior when drives are satiated
-Murray
-primary needs - biological
-secondary needs - psychogenic - all innate |
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-hierarchy of needs
-lower needs must be met first
-unmet deficiency needs result in tension/anxiety
-unmet growth needs result in dissatisfaction |
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-human behavior motivated by beliefs attitudes and expectations
-value of a goal , achieving goal
-beliefs about ability to control events
--internal - our effort and ability
--external - luck, external factors |
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| -performance of an activity to obtain external regards |
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| -performance of an activity for inherent satisfaction |
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-children drawing
-extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation |
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-early explanation of hunger
-stomach contractions
-brain mechanisms
--lateral hypothalamus-initiates eating
--ventromedial hypothalamus--stop eating
--brain stem |
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-when blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates drive to eat and restore proper level
-when blood glucose levels restored, satisfaction occurs and eating stops - homeostasis |
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-range of body fat and muscle mass we tend to maintain
-hormones
-ghrelin - increase hunger
-cck - decreases hunger
-leptin - reduces appetite |
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-men & women similar in sexual response
-vasocongestion - blood engorgement
-myotonia - muscle tension and contractions |
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-excitement
-plateau
-orgasm
-resolution |
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| variations in female sexual response |
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Definition
-entire cycle multiple orgasms
-gradual arousal, fluctuating plateau, small surges, slow resolution
-brief plateau, single orgasm, rapid resolution |
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-extraversion
-neuroticism
-conscientiousness
-agreeableness
-openness to experience |
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-beliefs and expectations shape personality
-reciprocal determinism - cognition, behavior, and environment influence each other
-observational learning
-self efficacy |
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-conversion symptoms
-glove anesthesia
-psychological causes of physical symptoms
--symptoms have symbolic meaning, unconscious, uncovering meaning relieves symptoms |
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-unconscious source of sexual and aggressive energies
-original and unchanging
-pleasure principle
-goal is reduction of drive tension
-immediate gratification |
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-source of rationality
-mostly conscious
-serves id
-reality principle - postpone gratification until it's safe |
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-source of morality
-conscious and unconscious
-pressures ego to restrain gratification |
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-realistic (fear) - threat from outside world
-neurotic (anxiety) - threat from one's own desires/drives
-moral (guilt) - threat from one's own conscience |
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-denial
-repression
-projection
-reaction-formation
-displacement
-rationalization
-sublimation |
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-12-18 mos,
infants obtain pleasure by sucking and biting |
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-18 mos - 3 yrs
-toilet training and anal-erotic gratification |
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3-6 years
-oedipus complex
-establishes template for who we will love and how we will experience competition and jealousy |
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-6-12 years
-sexual impulses submerged into the unconscious |
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-12 years to adulthood
-sexual impulses reawaken
-goal is heterosexual reproductive sexuality
-childhood sexuality shapes objects of desire |
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-drive: id + individuation
-collective unconscious
-archetypes - self, anima/us, shadow, persona |
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-drive: need to feel loved, wanted, safe
-conflict between dependency and hostility
-basic anxiety, hostility, neurotic need |
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| relational psychoanalysis |
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Definition
-need to be in relationships with others
-separation-individuation
-neither isolated form others nor fused with others |
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| self psychology (Heinz Kohut) |
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Definition
-self-esteem (narcissistic) needs in childhood
-parents' empathy leads them to affirm the goodness of the child's self
-failures of empathy lead to defects in the self |
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-human capacity for self-consciousness
-human awareness of the future as potentially different from the present |
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| -humans are goal oriented |
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