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| Intercultural Communication |
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| the symbolic exchange process hereby individuals from two (or more) different cultural communities attempt to negotiate shared meanings in an interactive situation and embedded in a societal system |
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“the process of the world becoming a single place”
“The widening, deepening, and speeding up worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary life”
“Rapidly developing processes of complex interconnections between societies, cultures, institutions, and individuals worldwide” |
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| Integration of global markets within across First and Third World countries |
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| Interconnectedness of nation-state politics |
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| The spread of cultures via movement around the world |
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| Cultures mix and take on similar characteristics |
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| at the same time, seeking to be distinct and independent |
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| Learned aspects of human behavior, Shared among a group of people, Used to interpret meaning from experiences |
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| a set of ideas, conditions, or assumptions that determine how something will be approached, perceived, or understood |
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| We judge others based on the standards of our culture |
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| we need understand cultures in their own context |
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standard for determining what is good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, beautiful or ugly , valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel Cultural values differ in valence and intensity
Valence: is the value seen as positive or negative?
Intensity: how significant is he value to the culture? |
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Ideas that are assumed to be true about the world
Defines what is “reality”
Creates expectations for how the world works |
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Socially shared rules or guideline for appropriate behavior in certain situations
Less enduring than values and beliefs
More observable because they directly affect behavior |
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Behavioral patterns of cultural members
The outward manifestation of values, beliefs, and norms within a culture
Range from informal (dress, talk) to formal (rituals, ceremonies) |
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| (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. |
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| (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness. Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another |
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| Do one thing at a time, Concentrate on the job, Take time commitments seriously, Are low context and need information, Are committed to the job, Adhere religiously to plans, Are concerned about not disturbing others; follow rules of privacy and consideration, Show great respect for private property; seldom borrow or lend, Emphasize promptness, Are accustomed to short term relationships |
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| Do many things at once, Can be easily distracted and manage interruptions well, Consider an objective to be achieved, if possible, Are high context and already have information, Are committed to people and human relationships, Change plans often and easily, Are more concerned with those who are closely related than privacy, Borrow and lend things often and easily, Base promptness on the relationship, Have strong tendency to build lifetime relationships |
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| Individualistic cultures are oriented around the self, independent instead of identifying with a group mentality. They see each other as only loosely linked, and value personal goals above that of the group. Individualistic cultures tend to have a more diverse population, and are characterized with emphasis on personal achievements, and a rational assessment of both the beneficial and detrimental aspects of relationships with others. lower context |
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| Collectivist orientations stress the importance of cohesion within social groups (such as an "in-group", in what specific context it is defined) and in some cases, the priority of group goals over individual goals. Collectivists often focus on community, society, nation or country |
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| the rule of material things, power and dignity, The main priorities in life are successful achievements, material welfare and individual growth, It’s possible to solve problems with the help of aggressive measures, Males and females perform different social roles. The difference in sexual roles, obeying, ambitions and independence, It’s natural for working class that the purpose of life is work which means more working hours and less holydays. |
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| The main value is a human being, upbringing and life purpose, The main priorities in life are a family, relationshipsh and living standards, It’s only possible to negotiate disputable issues, Sexual roles are not strictly fixed, male and female have equal social roles, The purpose of life for working class is life itself and work is here only to allow people to live, so long term relationships with an employer and flexible schedule are characteristics of these type of cultures. |
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| The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which a person in society feels uncomfortable with a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? |
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tells speakers which sounds to use and how to order them
Potential communication problems |
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| how the combination of different sounds convey meaning |
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| the relationships of words to one another |
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| the contextual rules that govern language usage in a particular culture |
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Language of a given culture directly influences how people think, Speakers of different language see different worlds, Different language have different properties
These properties direct you attention to certain qualities of things or aspects of our experiences
When this occurs over and over (as we use a language), result can be cerain mental patterns, ways of thinking, or associations, These patterns reflect cultural beliefs and values |
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| must take into account language as used by respondents and the possibility of terms lacking equivalents across languages. |
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| Idiomatic equivalence can cause communication problems because although native speakers understand the meanings of an idiom, they can be difficult for a non-native speaker to understand and translated directly they can be either bisarre or meaningless. |
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| Grammatical-syntactical Equivalence |
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| Objects or experiences that do not exist in one culture are difficult to translate into the language of another culture |
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| Conceptual equivalence is a barrier for communication if ideas or concepts are not understood in the same ways in different cultures. |
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| Language brokers are children of immigrant families who translate and interpret for their parents and other individuals. |
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Use of the body to convey messages
Emblems (ex. Peace sign)
Illustrators (ex. Pointing)
Affect displays (ex. Smile)
Regulators (ex. Shaking head)
Adapters (ex. Fidgeting) |
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Use of space and distance
Distance controls intimacy through sensory exposure (visual, tactile, olfactory, auditory)
Intimate: 0-1 ½ ft. (loving comforting protecting, fighting)
Personal: 1 ½-4 ft. (conversation with intimates, friends and acquaintances)
Social: 4-12 ft. (Impersonal and social gatherings)
Public: 12-up ft. (Lectures, concerts, plays, speeches, ceremonies, protection) |
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Use of time; what time means
Monochronic vs. Polychronic cultures
Concept of time influences communication behavior
What does our use of time communicate
Respect
Importance or priority |
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Use of touch: where, when, and who we touch
Touch communicates:
Affection
Affiliation
Control |
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What we wear and how we look (includes artifacts)
Examples: clothing, hairstyle, mode of dress, body type, tattoos, height
Differences in physical appearance communicate:
Identity (culture, religion, age)
Status/power
How we feel about ourselves (embodied cognition)
Attractiveness |
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Use of smell to communicate messages
Different scents carry social significance
Which scents are attractive? |
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Communicates attention
Averting gaze to create distance, disinterest
Communicates intimacy
Harder to maintain eye contact post-transgression |
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Quality and characteristics of voice
Loudness
Pitch
Silences (pauses)
Speech duration
Speech rate
Conversational rhythm
Vocalizations
Elements use to modify meaning, convey emotion (continuously coded) |
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| How you perceive yourself |
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| Those given to you by others |
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| We see ourselves as more similar to ingroup members than outgroup members |
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| We have more trust, positive affect for ingroup members |
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Identification: HIGH
Permeability: LOW
Legitimacy: LOW
Stability: LOW
Result (if you are low status)”
Hostile attitudes toward high stat group
Social action to change the situation
EX; Arab Spring, Ukraine |
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Identification: LOW
Permeability: HIGH
Legitmiacy: HIGH
Stability: HIGH
Result (if you are low status):
As an individual, attempt to more to a higher status group
Ex: American Dream |
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Identification: HIGH
Permeability: LOW
Legitimacy: HIGH
Stability: HIGH
Result (if you are low status)
Change the way your group conceptualizes itself |
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| A stereotype is a thought that may be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. |
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| preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. |
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| Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or category, "in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. |
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| Overt displays of bigotry; judgements of superiority and inferiority; dehumanizing minorities |
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Expression of feelings (fears) that a minority group threatens the political, economic, and/or social power of the majority
Ex: Arizona immigration law |
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Overtly demonstrating feelings of racial equality and fairness while coverlly maintaining racst beliefs, attitudes, and/or hehaviors
Ex: voting or not for President Obama |
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| Including a few (select) members of one group in order to demonstrate that you are not prejudice against the entire group |
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HIGH degree of contact with host culture, LOW degree to which cultural identity is maintained
People who totally immerse themselves in culture |
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HIGH degree of contact with host culture, HIGH degree to which cultural identity is maintained
Second generation Americans |
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LOW degree of contact with host culture, HIGH degree to which cultural identity is maintained
Neighborhoods in NYC, and no one speaks English |
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LOW degree of contact with host culture, LOW degree to which cultural identity is maintained
Not able to get the relationships you want |
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Feeling of disorientation, anxiety experienced when entering a new culture
Question
Symptoms: feelings of depression, helplessness, anxiety, homesickness, confusion, irritability, isolation, intolerance, defensiveness, |
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| Culture shock felt by people who go back to their home culture after extended time elsewhere |
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| dominant culture vs. sub culture |
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Definition
Dominant Cultures
Cultures is often defined in terms of:
Nation
Place of citizenship and/or location that provides formal government and legal guidelines
Race
Physical characteristics (skin color, eye shape) that are shared by a group of people
Ethnicity
Subcultures
Micro cultures within dominant cultures that have distinctive values, norms, and rules for behaviors
Ethnicity: can be dominant or subcultural
Socio-economic status
Geographic regions
Organizations |
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| pros and cons of globalization |
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Definition
Positives
Spread of cultures globally
Increased international trade
McDonaldization
Negatives
Loss of local cultural identity (ex. Canadian magazines)
Threaten the viability of locally mad products and companies (Wal-Mart)
Americanization of cultures (ex. Starbucks in Italy) |
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Selection: choosing what information to focus on
Selective exposure: a choice in what you allow yourself to be exposed to
Selective attention: things that we will pay attention to because it is relevant to our interests
Selective retention: things that are salient to us, or relevant will be the things you most remember
Culture influences selection
Expectations: what w expect to perceive
Familiarity: what we are used to perceiving
Perception: Categorization
Categorization: ordering the environment by grouping things (people, objects, events)
Reduces uncertainty
Helps predict how we (and others) should act
Culture influence categorization
How we categorize
Objects, rules, shared characteristics vs. relationships and similarities
How we relate
Perception: Interpretation
Interpretations: attachment of meaning to information we perceive
Use what we know to interpret new information
More ambiguous stimuli have more room for interpretation
Same situation can be interpreted differently
Culture influence interpretation
Different meanings associated with things and behaviors between cultures
Emphasize different elements when interpreting behavior |
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Functions of Language
Language is used to refer to objects, events, groups, people, idea, felling experiences
Language is used to exchange meaning
Must recognize different kinds of meaning
Meanings are often culturally shared
Meanings can be idiosyncratic |
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1. Vocal-auditory channel -- This means that the standard human language occurs as a vocal (making sounds with the mouth) type of communication which is perceived by hearing it. There are obvious exceptions: writing and sign language are examples of communication in the manual-visual channel. However, the vast majority of human languages occur in the vocal-auditory channel as their basic mode of expression. Writing is a secondary, and somewhat marginal form of language, while sign languages are in limited use, mostly among deaf people who are limited in their ability to use the auditory part of the vocal-auditory channel.
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2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception -- This means that the human language signal is sent out in all directions, while it is perceived in a limited direction. For spoken language, the sound perpetuates as a waveform that expands from the point of origin (the mouth) in all directions. This is why a person can stand in the middle of a room and be heard by everyone (assuming they are speaking loudly enough). However, the listener hears the sound as coming from a particular direction and is notably better at hearing sounds that are coming from in front of the them than from behind them.
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3. Rapid fading (transitoriness) -- This means that the human language signal does not persist over time. Speech waveforms fade rapidly and cannot be heard after they fade. This is why it is not possible to simply say "hello" and have someone hear it hours later. Writing and audio-recordings can be used to record human language so that it can be recreated at a later time, either by reading the written form, or by playing the audio-record.
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4. Interchangeability -- This means that the speaker can both receive and broadcast the same signal. This is distinctive from some animal communications such as that of the sticklefish. The sticklefish make auditory signals based on gender (basically, the males say "I'm a boy" and the females say "I'm a girl"). However, male fish cannot say "I'm a girl," although they can perceive it. Thus, sticklefish signals are not interchangeable.
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5. Total feedback -- this means that the speaker can hear themself speak and can monitor their language performance as they go. This differs from some other simple communication systems, such as traffic signals. Traffic signs are not normally capable of monitor their own functions (a red light can't tell when the bulb is burned out, i.e.).
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6. Specialization -- This means that the organs used for producing speech are specially adapted to that task. The human lips, tongue, throat, etc. have been specialized into speech apparati instead of being merely the eating apparati they are in many other animals. Dogs, for example, are not physically capable of all of the speech sounds that humans produce, because they lack the necessary specialized organs.
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7. Semanticity -- This means that specific signals can be matched with specific meanings. This is a fundamental aspect of all communication systems. For example, in French, the word sel means a white, crystalline substance consisting of sodium and chlorine atoms. The same substance is matched with the English word salt. Anyone speaker of these languages will recognize that the signal sel or salt refers to the substance sodium chloride.
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8. Arbitrariness -- This means that there is no necessary connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. For example, something as large as a whale can be referred to by a very short word. Similarly, there is no reason that a four-legged domestic canine should be called a dog and not a chien or a perro or an anjing (all words for 'dog' in other languages). Onomatopoeic words such as "meow" or "bark" are often cited as counter-examples, based on the argument that they are pronounced like the sound they refer to. However, the similarity if very loose (a dog that actually said "bark" would be very surprising) and does not always hold up across languages (Spanish dogs, for example, say "guau"). So, even onomatopoeic words are, to some extent, arbitrary.
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9. Discreteness -- This means that the basic units of speech (such as sounds) can be categorized as belonging to distinct categories. There is no gradual, continuous shading from one sound to another in the linguistics system, although there may be a continuum in the real physical world. Thus speakers will perceive a sound as either a [p] or a [b], but not as blend, even if physically it falls somewhere between the two sounds.
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10. Displacement -- This means that the speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. For example, human language allows speakers to talk about the past and the future, as well as the present. Speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant (such as other countries, the moon, etc.). They can even refer to things and events that do not actually exist (they are not present in reality) such as the Easter Bunny, the Earth having an emperor, or the destruction of Tara in Gone with the Wind.
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11. Productivity -- This means that human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand. For example, the sentence "The little lavender men who live in my socks drawer told me that Elvis will come back from Mars on the 10th to do a benefit concert for unemployed Pekingese dogs" is a novel and never-before-heard sentence (at least, I hope it is!), but any fluent speaker of English would be able to understand it (and realize that the speaker was not completely sane, in all probability).
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12. Traditional Transmission -- This means that human language is not something inborn. Although humans are probably born with an ability to do language, they must learn, or acquire, their native language from other speakers. This is different from many animal communication systems where the animal is born knowing their entire system, e.g. bees are born knowing how to dance and some birds are born knowing their species of bird-songs (this is not true of all birds).
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13. Duality of patterning -- This means that the discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new forms. This idea is similar to Productivity (Feature 11). However, Productivity refers to the ability to generate novel meanings, while Duality of patterning refers to the ability to recombine small units in different orders. |
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| the fluid nature of identity |
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Definition
The Fluid Nature of Identity
Identity is multifaceted
We are never just one identity at a time
Identity is base on categorization
By defining what we ARE (ingroups), we are also defining what we ARE NOT (outgroups)
Two categories of identities:
Avowed identities: How you perceive yourself
Ascribed identities: Those given to you by others
Identity is enacted through communication
Verbal: language, accent dialect, etc.
Nonverbal: clothing, food, artifacts, etc.
Identity is dynamic (and contextual/relational)
Different components of your identity become salient in different situations
Your salient identities become the “filter” for your communication in various contexts |
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| Communiation Accomodation Theory |
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Definition
| Communication accommodation theory (CAT) is a theory of communication developed by Howard Giles. It argues that “when people interact they adjust their speech, their vocal patterns and their gestures, to accommodate to others”.[1] It explores the various reasons why individuals emphasize or minimize the social differences between themselves and their interlocutors through verbal and nonverbal communication. This theory is concerned with the links between “language, context and identity”.[2] It focuses on both the intergroup and interpersonal factors that lead to accommodation as well as the ways in which power, macro and micro-context concerns affect communication behaviors.[2] There are two main accommodation processes described by this theory. Convergence refers to the strategies through which individuals adapt to each other’s communicative behaviors, in order to reduce these social differences.[3] Meanwhile, Divergence refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors.[3] Sometimes when individuals try to engage in convergence they can also end up over-accommodating, and despite their good intentions their convergence can be seen as condescending. |
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| self categorization theory |
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Definition
Basic premise: we act (and interact) as group members based on prototypes
We define ourselves in terms of categories: I am a _____________
Categories can be understood in terms of prototypes
Prototypes depend on context
Depends on who we are comparing ourselves to
Depends on the current state of intergroup relations
Built on metacontrast pick the set of features that best defines the category relative to other (background) categories
Variation in individuals around the prototype
People can be more or less prototypical, but still fall in a category
Evaluation of a person depends what prototype you use for reference (ex. Extreme vs. moderate)
Social categories are determined by context
What we identify with depends on the situation
Particular self-concept activated in particular situations
We choose categories based on salience
Salience= accessibility + fit
Accessibility: how easily we can pull up a category
Fit: how w
Well reality matches the criteria for defining the category
WE take on the catefgory as a social identity
WE see ourselves as interchangable with an exemplar of the social category
We tend to conform the ingorup prototype
Manifestations in communication
We see ourselves as more similar to ingroup members than outgroup members (ingroup accentuation)
We have more trust, positive affect for ingroup members (ingroup favoritism
We stick for ingroup members (ex., internal vs. external attributions)
WE interact with outgroup members baed on perceived prototypes (i.e., stereotypes) |
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Basic premise: we are motivated to maintain a positive social identity
To do so, we seek positive distinctiveness
How we accomplish this depends on the nature of the situation we re in
Identification with the group
3 social structural constraints
Legitimacy
Stability
Permeability |
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| Ethnolinguistic Vitality Theory |
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| The objective vitality of an ethnolinguistic group (an ethnic group defined by its language) can be defined by factors such as economic status, geographic concentration, and political representation, according to Howard Giles, Richard Bourhis, and Donald Taylor. The greater the group's objective vitality, the more likely it is that group members will learn and maintain their ingroup language. According to ethnolinguistic identity theory , which explains language shifts, multilingualism, language attitudes, and media use, perceptions of group vitality are predictive of behavior. This entry looks at the implications of ethnolinguistic vitality for intergroup relations, language shifts, multilingualism, and social attitudes. Objective vitality enables a group to survive as a distinctive and thriving collective entity. Groups with higher vitality survive and prosper; groups with lower vitality eventually cease to exist. Three factors combine to determine objective vitality: status variables , which include economic, social, and historic status as perceived from within |
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| Intergroup Contact Theory |
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| The premise of Allport's theory states that under appropriate conditions interpersonal contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.[3] If one has the opportunity to communicate with others, they are able to understand and appreciate different points of views involving their way of life. As a result of new appreciation and understanding, prejudice should diminish.[4] Issues of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are commonly occurring issues between rival groups. Allport's proposal was that properly managed contact between the groups should reduce these problems and lead to better interactions. |
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