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o Return to order, harmony and balance
o Landscapes, pastoral scenes, etc |
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• Prolific Austrian composer who established the form of the symphony and the string quartet
• 106 symphonies
• 373 other pieces
• Famous works:
o The Creation
o String Quartet in G |
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| Philosophical Letters (1734), |
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Definition
• By Voltaire
• known as Letters from the English Nation → threatened with arrest →
• These letters comment on his experience of English government and traditions
• He’s very pro-religious toleration; of course, the Catholic church was the state church of France at the time; in England, by the 1820’s, religious toleration was fairly broad
• Viewed as a threat because people recognize the criticism in the letters as well |
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• Main target was the philosophical optimist position of Leibniz; Leibniz believed this was the best of all possible world; Voltaire was beside himself with rage that anyone could say such a thing
• Takes Candide on a world tour of Europe and the Americas (South) (Candide borders on stupidity)
• Throughout, he mocks the Leibnizian scientist
• Candide ends up in Turkey, and discovers that the real key to happiness in one’s life is to tend a garden, and not become involved with anything |
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| Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755) |
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Definition
o Written by Rousseau
o Said there are natural and artificial inequalities
o Not everyone is equally tall, smart, fast, etc…
o If we’re not all the same how can we be equal
o There are natural difference in capacity, but also, some artificial ones that society creates; these are along the lines of fortune of birth to be a noble
o Rousseau viewed man as originally solitary; there, he was pure and free of the vices that society creates; vice (evil) is an inevitable consequence of civilization
o Rousseau says that vices are a function of civilization, compared to Locke, who said that civilization had some benefits (securing life, liberty, estate)
o Civil society in an unequal contract from the very foundations |
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Definition
o Children are naturally pure, and that they are only corrupted by external of civilized life
o He believed that ture education shouldn’t be in knowledge (esp. Greek, Latin, all the classical writers), rather, education should be in republican virtue for boys
o Women’s place was in the home; making it a pleasant place for the husband a good place to rear children |
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| The Scottish Enlightenment |
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Definition
o Period in 18th century of remarkable output of philosophical, intellectual and scientific works from Scotland
o Centered on Edinburgh (capital),
o The Edinburgh Philosophical Society (kind of a debating society) (1738) → Royal Edinburgh Society (1783)
o Empiricist vs. Rationalist
o Compared to the French Enlightenment, it was must more empiricist, rather than rationalist (deriving things from reason; much more pragmatic, deriving from science; study the world, see was works, instead of starting from some principles and reasoning from there)
o Causes unclear |
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Definition
o System in Prussia implemented under Fredrick William I
o All the males of military age in Prussia were tied to the land in a specific district; these districts had to have a regiment→
o Pretty much all men of military age were trained for the military |
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Term
| The Battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) |
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Definition
o The Prussians march in and CRUSH the Hapsburgs
o So decisive that they almost have to give the area up to Prussia |
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| Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) |
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Definition
o Pretty much everything went back to normal except:
o Prussia gets Silesia |
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Term
| The Diplomatic Revolution (1756) |
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Definition
o The Alliance between French and Austria
o France-don’t want new power of Prussia
o Austria (Hapsburgs)-hate Prussia b/c they took Silesia
o An unlikely alliance because they had been enemies for so long |
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Definition
o (1707)
o The English convince the Scottish Parliament to join with the British Parliament→The United Kingdom |
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Term
| The Battle of Rossbach (Nov. 5, 1757) |
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Definition
| o Frederick surprises the French→Crushes the French army |
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Term
| The Battle of Leuthen (Dec. 5, 1757) |
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Definition
| o Frederick defeats the Austrian army |
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Term
| William Pitt the Elder and British Subsidies |
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Definition
o Prime minister 1756-1761, 1766-8
o Britain finances the war but doesn’t supply troops
o The Global Strategy
o Initiated a naval blockade of the French from the Americas |
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Term
| The Battle of Kunersdorf (Aug. 12, 1759) |
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Definition
o Austrians and French link up
o Frederick launches an attack but it fails
o Bloodbath for Frederick
o 15,000 allied casualties
o 19,000 allied casualties
o Causes him to retreat |
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Term
| The Battle of Quiberon Baby (Nov. 20, 1759) |
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Definition
o In these two battles, British defeat both parts of the French navy
o British is now the controller of the Seas |
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Term
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Definition
o Dominant economy theory in the 17th and early 18th centuries in Europe
o Main Features:
o Specie as wealth
o Competition for specie by trade
• Increase exports, decrease imports
o Government monopolies
o Protectionism and native manufacturing→economic autarky
• Autarky=self-sufficiency
• If your company can produce all that it needs, then this is progress (according to mercantilism…clearly not the idea of free trade that we use today)
o Imports discouraged →sumptuary laws
• Sumptuary laws restrictions on clothing (like silk)
• These were typically complete failures
o →Push for colonies as a source for raw materials and markets
o Every growing hunger for sugar and tobacco
o The colonies would supply their raw materials and then buy back the goods produced in Europe |
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Term
| The Board of Trade (1696) |
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Definition
o For British Colonies (…?)
o Created to regulate the trade that is going on in the colonies
o An element of the mercantilist economy
o Attempt to use the colonies to benefit Europe |
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Term
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Definition
o Spanish Colonies (1720)
o The British right to trade slaves in the Spanish empire
o Spanish colonies become dependent upon the British |
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Definition
o Brazil
o (1750) →War of the Seven Reductions (1756)
o Peaceful exchange of territory between Spain and Portugal
o The seven reductions wanted to resist the transfer because slavery was more widespread in Portugal |
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Term
| The First Continental Congress |
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Definition
o (Sept 5-Oct 26, 1774)
o Drew up a list of petitions/complaints to give to the King and his ministers so that they could be redressed
o They weren’t confident that the King was going to listen to them so they made a plan B=armed representative
o 1st time that 12 of the colonies (Georgia not attend) came together and decided on a common policy
o Threat common to all, so the policy should be common to all |
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Term
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Definition
o (Oct 7, 1777) →Burgoyne surrenders →France enters the war
o Signal victory in early fighting
o France decides to side with the colonists. Provide:
o Training
o Men (a few)
o Money
o The French fleet! |
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Term
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Definition
o Royal Power
o Absolute and god-granted
o Arbitrary
• Lettres de cachet
• Letters signed by the King which allowed for a person to be imprisoned without cause/trial
• The king could simply decide to do something new
o A society of Orders
o All men are NOT created equal
o 1st estate-clergy and priesthood
o 2nd estate-nobles
o 3rd estate-peasants/laborers…pretty much everyone!
• This included some wealthy merchants…often had more money than nobles→upset by this outdated social theory
o The Enlightenment Critique and the Public Sphere
o What is so good about tradition? Why not use reason to create a more rational, civilized, humane world?
o American Revolution as an example and inspiration
• Meritocracy→ability is rewarded over heredity
o We must move past this outdated way of life
• Not necessarily looking for a revolution
o Public Sphere
• Country was in debt→had to talk to normal people about politics and finance→appealed to people that they typically ignored for money and support
• Everyday people not originally included in politics |
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Term
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Definition
o His chancellorship: 1771-1774; Under the Later Rein of Louis XV
o The Problem of War Debt and the Need for Credit
o Terray’s Tax Plan→Resistance from the Parliaments
• We have to get rid of the privileges for the nobles and clergy→they must be taxed like the 3rd estate
• Parliament in France says absolutely not!
• Parliament in France was hereditary
o Maupeou’s Coup→Parliamentarians exiled
• Broke up France into 60 (?) districts
• This is completely illegal but there is pressure for reform
• The fiscal reforms are now able to be instituted because the Parliament is ignored
o Reforms proceed |
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Term
| The National Assembly (1789) |
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Definition
o Estates-General Convenes at Versailles (May 5)
o The Question of Voting
• Used to work that each of the estates received one vote
• Clergy and nobles would vote together against the 3rd estate
• This time, the 3rd estate was able to double its numbers
• 3rd estate demands that everyone votes together not separately
• This would allow the 3rd estate to actually make some changes
o Third Estate proclaims itself the National Assembly (June 17)
• They claim to be a sovereign voice
• Some clergymen agree with the 3rd estate and |
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Term
| o The Tennis Court Oath (June 20) → |
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Definition
o Mirabeau and Sieyes
• Mirabeau is a big supporter of a reformed constitutional monarchy
• Sieyes says: The people as a whole, through their representatives, are the sovereign voice—not the king.
o National Constituent Assembly (July 9)
• Goal to write a constitution for France
o The Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
o The Assembly Acts |
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Term
| o The Great Fear in the countryside (July-August, 1789) |
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Definition
o The Assembly abolishes feudalism and the tithe (aug. 4, 1789)
• System of surplus agrictultural extraction is over
• All feudal dues are gone, privileges and perks are gone; eventually even abolish the tithes (privileges of the church) |
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Term
| o The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (Aug. 26, 1789) |
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Definition
o The March to Versailles (Oct. 5-6, 1789)
• Nonpolitical actors that force the assembly to take a place that they originally didn’t intend
• Prices for bread were ski high. Women in paris march in huge numbers to Versailles and they demand that the royal family come to Paris so they can be controlled
• Royal family moved back to the Touilles in Paris
• The national assembly follows |
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Term
| o The Issue of the Church |
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Definition
o The March to Versailles (Oct. 5-6, 1789)
• Nonpolitical actors that force the assembly to take a place that they originally didn’t intend
• Prices for bread were ski high. Women in paris march in huge numbers to Versailles and they demand that the royal family come to Paris so they can be controlled
• Royal family moved back to the Touilles in Paris
• The national assembly follows
o The Issue of the Church
o Nov. 2, 1789-church lands nationalized by the assembly
• This secured the end of the tithe
• Now the assembly has a bunch of land at their disposal
o Dec. 12, 1789-assignats issued
• Assignats=paper money backed by the value of church land
• Tying to church land secures the value of the money
o July 12, 1790—the Civil Constitution of the Clergy decreed
o Nov 27, 1790-The oath→jurors and non-jurors
• Jurors=those swore the oath
• Non-jurors=
o April 14, 1791—Pope Pius VI condemns the Civil Constitution
• This will lead to real violence in France
• Jurors saw non-jurors as traitors and that they were swearing loyalty to a foreign power
• Non-jurors saw jurors as heretic |
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Term
| o The Plight and Flight of Louis XVI |
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Definition
o The push toward constitutional Monarchy
o Communion and the Paris Mob
• Louis only take communion from the non-jurors
• The Parisians were very angered with Louis and especially with his wife, Marie Antionette (Austrian)
o June 20-1, 1791—The Flight to Varennes
• Louis and family flees
• Hopes to make it to the border where he can be protected by the troops of his wife’s’ brother
• Stopped by National Guard
o Jacobins push for Republic
• Jacobins are
• This was to radical for most |
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Term
| o The Consitution of 1791 |
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Definition
o July 17, 1791—The Massacre on the Champs de Mars
• Lead by Layfette
• Sansculottes not happy with the constitution
• National Guard opens fire and kills about 100→loss of confidence in the assembly |
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Term
| The Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) |
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Definition
o Price of bread had continued to sky rocket
o Fear that the king was moving his troops around and preparing to crush the revolutionaries
o Only had seven prisoners
o Sansculottes were lower class citizens. Governor opens fire, killing 98, crowd then storms the Bastille. Cut off governors head and parade it around town.
o Now the lower class has weapons to defend themselves
o This scares the upper middle class people around France |
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Term
| The Great Fear in the countryside (July-August, 1789) |
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Definition
o Fear that the Parisian rebels will raid the country side for food
o Scares the upper class around France |
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Term
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Definition
o Constitutional monarchy
o Separation of powers
o Active vs Passive citizens
o Only active citizens can vote or hold office
o All men have equal rights but not all men can vote |
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Term
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Definition
o begins (March 11, 1793)
o People in vendee were much more consciously Catholic and wanted to return to a monarchy
o Think the revolution is straight from hell
o Over 100,000 killed by the end of the year |
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Term
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Definition
o Approved (June 24, 1793)
o Very radical
o Got rid of active and passive citizens
o Universal male suffrage—right to a political voice
o Was suspended quickly→provisions never implemented |
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Term
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Definition
o Called this for the suspension of normal rules and procedures
o Harshest possible measures→you are either an enemy or a friend.
o No middle ground
o One of the first victims=Marie Antoinette
o Oct. 16, 1793
o She was the widow of the King
o Girondins executed
o These were revolutionaries but deemed not revolutionary enough
o Executed as a group
o Dec. 1793-end of Federalist rebellions, the Vendee conquered
o 25,000-30,000 people executed without trial
o Major bloodshed!
o Hebertists executed
o March 24, 1794
o Leader of radical group of lower classes
o Robespierre and others felt that he was too dangerous…too violent and revolutionary
o Herbertist and followers gathered and killed as a group
o Dantonists executed
o April 5, 1794
o People begin to wonder when this is going to end…
o Danton is a victim of the terror that he helped create
o Reasoning???
o The Fall of Robespierre
o After Danton is executed Robespierre is the only major Jacobin leader left
o June 20, 1794—Festival of the Supreme Being
o Supreme being rewards virtue and punishes vice
o Robespierre rejects Catholicism but feels that a belief in a supreme being is ESSENTIAL! |
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Term
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Definition
o (July 10, 1794) → The Great Terror
o Law allowed for anyone to be called to trial
o EXPAND ON THIS!
o Thousands of people executed |
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