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Details Title: Human Species George Long Description: Exam 2 Total Flash Cards: 128 Created: 10/16/2007 10:09:03	To study from this set of flash cards, or to create your own your own study flash cards, register HERE. If you are already a registered user, CLICK HERE.
Cards Term THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR Definition §      Study of behavior in free-ranging primates §      From “ecological” and “evolutionary” perspective §      Relationship between: §    Behaviors §    The natural  environment §    Biological traits of species studied Term Ecological Definition §      Relationship between organism and all aspects of environment §      For example food resources and predators Term Behavior Definition §      May or may not be deliberate §      Not necessarily the results of conscious decision making. Term Behavioral Ecology Definition §      An approach that focuses on the relationship between behaviors, the natural environment, and biological traits of the species. §      Some behaviors are influenced by genes §      Subject to natural selection Term Primate Social Structure Definition §       the results of natural selection in specific habitats. §      Social behavior is one of the major topics in primate research Term SOME FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOCIAL STRUCTURE Definition §      Body size §      Distribution of resources §       Predation Term Body Size Definition §    Larger animals require fewer calories by weight than smaller animals. §    Larger  animals are better able to retain heat §    Overall energy requirements are less than for smaller animals. Term Distribution of Resources Definition §     Leaves can be abundant will support large groups of animals. §     Fruits and nuts occur in clumps. These can most efficiently be exploited by smaller groups of animals. §     Some species that rely on foods distributed in small clumps tend to be protective of resources Term Predation Definition §    Primates are vulnerable to many types of predators §    Where predation pressure is high, large communities are advantageous. Term PRIMATE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Definition §      Primates solve major adaptive problems in a “social context” §      Several behaviors reinforce integrity of group §      Includes dominance, communication, aggression, affiliation and altruism Term Dominance Definition §      Many primate societies are organized into dominance hierarchies. §      These impose a certain degree of order  Term Displays Definition §      communicate emotional states §      Elaborate, complicated, repetitive §      Gorilla – chest slapping, tear vegetation as threat display  Term Aggression (Against Intrusion) Definition §     Often to protect individual or group resources Home Range §      Primate groups are associated with a home range where they remain permanently Term Core Area Definition §       is portion within home range §      Contains the highest concentration of predictable resources §      The core area can also be said to be a group’s territory, and it’s the portion of the home range defended against intrusion. Term Affiliation and Altruism Definition §      Many behaviors minimize violence §      Reinforce bonds between individuals and enhance group stability   Term Grooming Definition §      – pick through fur §      Social grooming common among primates §      Reinforces social relationships Term Altruism Definition §      Behaviors that benefit another while posing risk to oneself, §      Common in primate species §      Defend another against a predator §      Adoption of orphans Term Patterns of Reproduction Definition §      In most primate societies, sexual behavior is tied to the female’s reproductive cycle. §      Mating only when in “estrus” indicating female receptive Term Bonding Definition §      A type of natural selection that operates on one sex, usually males. §      Long-term, this increases the frequency of traits that lead to greater success in acquiring mates. Term Dimorphism Definition §      Sexual selection produces dimorphism §      Especially body size §      Presence or absence of dimorphism can indicate mating structure Term MOTHERS, FATHERS AND INFANTS Definition Isolated monkeys did not “learn” rules of social behavior Term Primate Cultural Behavior Definition §      It is learned; it’s passed from generation to generation through learning (not “biological”). §      Not just applied to humans §      Term “cultural primatolgy” now used Term Definition Term Chimpanzee “Cultural” Behavior Definition §      tool use §      1) “Termite fishing” §      2) “Leaf sponges” §      3) Hammerstones and platforms to crack nuts Term Regional Variation Definition §      Only chimp habitually makes and uses tools §      There are regional variations of tools used §      Regional dietary preferences also noted for chimps Term Closed System Definition §      It has been assumed t that nonhuman animals use a closed system of communication, where vocalizations don’t include references to specific external phenomena §      These view now challenged. Term Language Definition §      These views have been challenged: §    Vervet monkeys use specific vocalizations to refer to particular categories of predators, such as snakes, birds of prey, and leopards. Term Vervet Monkeys Definition §    Vervet monkeys have different alarm calls for particular predators §    Snakes, eagles, leopards §    Not involuntary §    Learned (but limited) Term Apes Definition §      Psychologists (especially working with chimpanzees) report that §      Apes can learn to interpret visual signs and use them in communication   §      That apes can’t speak has Less to do with intelligence than to: §      1) anatomy of vocal track  §      2) language-related structures in the brain Term Experiments (primate communication) Definition §      Attempts to teach chimpanzees to speak failed §     Experiments with other methods (next) Term Washoe Definition §     Infant chimpanzee §     Was taught ASL (American Sign Language) Term Loulis Definition §      Enfant placed in Washoe’s care §      Learned signs taught by Washoe Term Sara Definition §     Chimp §     Plastic chips recognized as symbols for various objects Term Koko Definition §     Gorilla §      ASL §     Learned 500 signs Term Chantek Definition §     Orangutan Term Sherman and Austin Definition §     Chimpanzees §     Used symbols to categorize “classes” of objects §     (not just “specific” items) Term Lana Definition §     Chimp §     Computer keyboard (chips) Term Kanzi Definition §     Bonobo (Chimp) §      Used symbols (lexigrams) §     Claimed that young Kanszi began “spontaneously’ acquiring and using symbols Term Cenozoic Periods Definition §       Paleocene (65 m.y.a.) §       Eocene §       Oligocene §       Miocene §       Pliocene (next chapter) §       Pleistocene §      Holocene(Recent) Term Levels of Primate Evolution Definition §       Early Ancestors §    (placental mammal radiation) §    Followed by four levels §       1)  Prosimians §       2) Anthropoids §       3) Hominoids §       4) Hominids Term EARLY PRIMATE EVOLUTION Definition Roots of primate order go back to beginning of placental mammal radiation Term Paleocene Definition §     Placental mammal radiation 65 m.y.a. §     During Paleocene §     Earliest primates diverging §     Generalized - therefore hard to classify Term Eocene Definition §      Earliest definite primates appear §      “the first primates of modern aspect” §      These fossils found in North America and Europe §      Continents connected (until Oligocene) §      Mostly extinct by end of Eocene Term Eocene Prosimian Radiation Definition §      Eocene primates: §      Some are ancestors of prosimians §      Such as lemurs and lorises §      Some are ancestors of tarsiers Term Oligocene Definition §      Numerous fossils of several species of early anthropoids in Oligocene. §      Most are “Old World Anthropoids” §      (especially from Fayum) §      Early Anthropoid radiation in Oligocene §      Most Oligocene fossils from Fayum, Egypt Term New World Definition §      By early Oligocene continental drift separated the New World (the Americas) from Old World §      Ancestry of New and Old World forms (“monkeys”) separate after 35 years ago. §      Suggested that first anthropoids arose in Africa and reach South America by “rafting” Term Apidium Definition §    Small primate §    Squirrel-sized arboreal quadruped Term Aegyptopithecus Definition Largest of the Fayum primates (20 lbs) Term Miocene Definition §    Spectacular hominoid radiation §    Diverse Miocene hominoid fossils found in Africa, Asia, Europe §     “the golden age of hominoids” §    Many species §    Much morphological variation §    None in New World Term Miocene Hominoids Definition §      Diverse §      Evolutionary relationships often reinterpreted  §      Hominoids are grouped geographically Term African forms Definition §      These hominoids are generalized and primitive §      Proconsul is best known genus of Early Miocene Hominoid in Africa §      Especially from East Africa (Kenya) §      More found in Namibia (southern Africa)   Term European forms Definition §      Dryopithecus is best known European genus Term Asian forms Definition §      Sivapithecus is best known genus Term Some Conclusions about Miocene Hominoid Definition §      3) Most too “derived” to be ancestors to living forms §    (not generalized ancestral form) §      4) Except  Sivapithecus may link to orangutan   §      5)  Evidence of  “DEFINTE” hominids from the Miocene has not yet been indisputably confirmed §      However, new finds in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Chad suggest hominids diverged in latter (end of) Miocene (Chad back 7 m.y.a.) Term Hominid Divergence Definition §      Initial divergence of “hominids” from African “hominoids” most likely occurred during late Miocene §      (there are probable Miocene hominid fossils  (late Miocene) §      Hominids (family Hominidae) are BIPEDAL Term Hominid Origins Definition §      First definite Hominid fossils found in Africa §      Numerous found have been found in Pliocene and first half of the Pleistocene §      Refer to this period as “Plio-Pleistocene §      New discoveries show earliest hominids date back to end of Miocene (7-5 m.y,a) Term Definition of Hominid Definition §      Distinctive hominid characteristics  §     Bipedal locomotion §     Large brain §     Tool making (at some stage) §     These are significant in defining hominids Term Mosaic evolution Definition §      Characteristics did not evolve at same time and place §      “Mosaic Evolutionary Pattern”  -  physiological and behavioral systems evolve at different rates. Term Bipedal Locomotion Definition §      Walking on two feet §      Most distinctive feature of family Hominidae §      Bipedal locomotion is single most important characteristic of hominid evolution indicating if a fossil is a hominid §      Other features (like brain size and behavior) become significant later Term The Bipedal Adaptation Definition §      Efficient bipedalism as the primary form of locomotion is seen only in hominids. §      Advantages of bipedalism: §     Freed the hands for carrying objects and for making and using tools. §     In the bipedal stance, animals have a wider view of the surrounding countryside. §     Bipedal walking is an efficient means of covering long distances. Term Bipedal Modifications Definition §      Pelvis most dramatic §      Shorter, broader, oriented more to sides §      (basin-like shape) §      (elongated in quadrupeds)   §      Others modifications: §      Foramen magnum repositioned §      Spinal curvature §      Lengthening of leg §      Femur angled inward §      Longitudinal arch §      Big toe realigned Term Major Features of Hominid Bipedalism Definition §      The foramen magnum is repositioned farther underneath the skull §      Note the more forward position in the human cranium. Term Biocultural Evolution Definition §      Most distinctive human behavioral feature: §      Dependence of culture §      Biology makes culture possible §      Culture further influences biological evolution Term Paleoanthropology Definition §      Paleoanthropology is defined as the study of early humans. §      Paleoanthropologists reconstruct the anatomy, behavior, and ecology of our ancestors: §      It is a diverse multidisciplinary pursuit Term Paleoanthropology  as a Multidisciplinary Science Definition §      Paleoanthropologists use skills of several disciplines: §      Geologists, archaeologists, physical anthropologists. Paleoecologists   §      For example §      Geologists may locate potential early hominid sites §      “Sites” - locations of discoveries §      Archaeologists search for hominid trace and study artifacts §      “Artifacts” are objects or materials made of modified for use by hominids Term Paleoanthropologists use two types of dating methods to tell us the age of sites and fossils: Definition §     Relative dating determines only whether an object is older or younger than other objects. §     Chronometric (absolute) dating provides an estimate of age in years based on radioactive decay. Term Relative Dating Techniques Definition §      Stratigrapy - based on the law of superposition, that a lower stratum (layer) is older than a higher stratum. §      Fluorine analysis applies to buried bones and groundwater seepage. Bones incorporate fluorine during fossilization. Term Relative Dating Definition §      First major category §      Determines if object is older or younger than other objects   Term Stratigraphy Definition §      Layering of deposits §      Based on the law of superposition, §      Lower stratum (layer) is older Term Fluorine analysis Definition §      Bones incorporate fluorine from groundwater during fossilization §      Longer buried - more fluorine §      Only compare  bones from same location Term Biostratigraphy Definition §      Uses fossils of better known animals to help date associated hominid remains §      (for example pigs, rodents, baboons) Term Paleomagnetism Definition §      Shifting of the geomagnetic pole §      Magnetic particles act as ancient compass §      Point to location of pole when rock formed Term Chronometric or Absolute Dating Definition §      Second major category §      Provides an estimate of age in actual number of years §      Most  are “radiometric” §      Based on rate of radioactive decay §      Elements disintegrate form another element Term Potassium/argon (K/Ar) Definition §      Potassium decays into argon gas §      Heating “resets” clock §      Volcanic rock in East Africa §      (dates rock - not bone) §      (used for old events to age of earth) Term Carbon-14 Definition §      Radiometric method §      (commonly used by archeologists). §      Dates organic material (bone, wood) §      From few hundred to 40,000 years (or 75,000) §      Relevant for latter stages of hominid evolution §      (such as Neandertals and modern humans) Term Fission-Track Definition §      Counts tracks left in crystalline rocks §      as uranium atoms disintegrate Term Regions Definition