• Militaristic Leader of the franks
• Defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE

It was the donation of the land of Rozenna, the seat of the Byzantine government in Italy, to the Pope, making him temporal ruler of the Papal States

• Leader of the Franks from 768-814
• Pepin's son
• Seized control over eastern areas: The Iberian Peninsula, Eastern Spain, Germanic States, Saxony, and Bavaria
• He restored the Pope

• Charles the Bald received the West Frankish Kingdom
• Louis the German received the East Frankish Kingdom
• Lothar I received the Middle Frankish Kingdom, which was later split between his two sons:
• Charles the Young received Burgundy
• Lothar II received Lotharingi

Private governments in private hands exercised by private individuals

Medieval Knights/Mounted Knights received lands for their services

Military commanders would conquer territory and split the land among their knights

Huge tracts of populated land split among knights

Knights received authority to govern the lands and served as vassals to their king

Manors consisted of nobles' households

Lords exercised all kinds of power: judges, political, courts, police

It made the law above the rulers

Rulers must observe feudal rights

Christianity trying to expel the Muslims from Spain

It drove the Muslims out of Spain and Christianized the population

They took the first steps in forging a Spanish state

Castile (Isabella) and Aragon (Ferdinand) were joined together by their marriage to create Spain

Supported the reconquista

Isabella supported Christopher Columbus

Prohibited secular appointment without approval

Upheld by Pope Gregory II

Secular nations opposed this

He supported Lay Investiture

As a pope, he was trying to control secular matters as well as church matters

The Pope was supreme over bishops, archbishops, and the king

The king could not appoint people or be appointed without papal approval

They were originally peaceful pilgrimages to holy places

Became violent against non-Christians and some Orthodox Christians

The 4th Crusade failed because it didn't gain military support from secular rulers

Changes in warfare nature: the introduction of the infantry

Decline of old warrior nobility

Decline of royal authority

Role of the local governments increased

Prevention of the penetration of Renaissance ideas

Traditional European aristocracy declined

Primarily warriors (Chivalry Knights)

They were expensive

A peasant girl

Internal voices told her to come and help her king

Gave some kind of spirits to the French king and the army

Crisis of church succession - Who was the Pope?

Bubonic Plague

Dynastic conflicts between ruling dynasties over who would inherit what

Peasants/serfs had to work landlords' lands in order to receive their own lands

Many people found ways to escape serfdom

Landlords tried to fix their labor force

Produced major peasant uprisings - Jaqueries

Decline in population

The Age of Barbarian Invasions

It set back European cultural growth almost centuries behind Asian and Muslim Empires

Europe was basically stuck in a rut

Founder of the very influential Florentine family

Originally a peasant family, they grew into wealth and power

Ended up controlling the government of Florence

Great patron of the arts

Historical linguistics

Interest in the classics

Signified the revival of a Golden Age in Europe

Studied ancient Roman works and were able to tell when a document was written just by reading it

Great humanist poet and scholar

Among the first to differentiate the new age in which he was living from 2 earlier ones: the classical world of Greece and Rome and the Dark Ages

The Father of Humanism

Coined the term "The Golden Age"

Renaissance philologist

Dated the Donation of Constantine to the 8th century, not the 4th century like the church claimed

Accentuated the importance of classic education

Classic Education makes people good by cultivating morality in them

Became a real style of formal education

Studia Humanist

Established that it was not just a male-dominated philosophy; women got involved too

developed humanism further

Decided that the Latin style of the Roman Republic was better than the Latin style of the Roman Empire

Republic form of government was better than an empire form of government

Really involved in politics

Wrote The History of Florence

Accentuated the fact that people needed to get involved in politics

On the Council of Florence

Milan

Milan wasn't a republic and didn't support public activity in the government

Florence was only saved by an outbreak of the Bubonic Plague that forced Milan to withdraw from the invasion

Wrote Platonic Theology

Translated Plato's work

Took the concept of Plato's ideal form and put a Christian face on it - the ideal form was God

Wrote Narration on the Dignity of Man

Argued that the people have free will to become one with God, to be come just as perfect as God

Furthered the work of Ficino

Perfected the printing press (invented by the Chinese centuries earlier)

Furthered the Renaissance because people were able to obtain texts and books

The printing press

The Italian Wars between France and Spain over Naples; they used Italy as a base for the fighting and took the ideas of Italian paintings back to their homelands

Mysticism and Magic - Hermes Trismegistus' earliest predictions of what would happen in this world

Castiglione's Courtier which provided a link throughout Europe for the Renaissance

There was a power struggle between the 2

Secular rulers were struggling to maintain their power as kings while the Christian church, through ideas of Papal Succession and Lay Investiture, was gaining more authority

French Prince

Started the Avignon Papacy because he began to tax the clergy, which was not allowed without papal approval

Pope Boniface VIII

"To my son"

Threatened Philip the Fair with excommunication for attempting to tax the clergy

Philip the Fair moved the papacy to the French city of Avignon

Split the Catholic Church

Known for its corruption

The last Avignon Pope moved back to the traditional Roman Catholic Church in Rome

Caused the Great Schism: Romans didn't want any more French Popes, so they elected their own Pope. There were now 2 popes

1378-1415

There were 2 popes: Urban VI of Rome and Clement VII of Avignon

Created criticism

They attempted to fix it by electing a new pope, but then there were 3 popes

In the Roman Catholic Church, a theory that a general council of the church has a greater authority than the Pope and may, if necessary, depose him

Enacted to prevent another Great Schism: the Pope could be overridden by the council

Laid the foundation for political reformation

Ended the Great Schism

Did away with all 3 popes and elected one new Pope

They used logic and Greek philosophy to try to explain and analyze Christian doctrine

Influenced by Aristotle

Emerged in England

Direct challenge to the papacy

Wanted to prove that the papacy was wrong when they excommunicated people or placed entire areas under interdict (refusal of church services)

Used original scriptures to prove that there was no support for the papacy's claim to power

Believed the Bible should be available to people in their native language

English translation of the Bible was produced

Associated with Scholasticism

Professor of Theology

Most brilliant intellect of the High Middle Ages

Aristotelian

Believed people could reach general truths by abstracting universals from particular, individual cases

Associated with the Lollards

An Oxford University professor of philosophy

Determined that there was no support for the papacy's claim to power

Scripture should be available in native languages

Find ways to gain salvation outside of the church

Personal communication with God

By conducting themselves in a certain way, people can reach that level that brings them close to God

Set up schools called the Brethren of Common Life, which educated people who would become reformers and Protestant Reformers

Searched for differences in meanings from translations that completely changed the original idea of the text

Produced his own translation of the Bible

Social thinker/critic

Criticized society and the church

Wrote Utopia about what he believed Christian society should be like and what early Christianity was

Great Dutch humanist

Social thinker/critic

Criticized society and the church

Disagreed with Martin Luther

Educated by the Brethren of Common Life

Wanted to reform the church from within instead of separating it

Wrote In Praise of Folly

Book by Martin Luther

Attacked the sale of indulgences and made several disagreements with the church

Introduced his own ideas of what the church should be like

Rejected the idea of the physical presence of flesh and blood of Jesus and offered the idea of a symbolic presence

Justification on faith in God alone

One of Luther's followers

Elaborated further some of Luther's ideas

Offered the idea of Predestination - God has already preordained people for salvation

Religious items bought to reduce time in purgatory

Money was used for building, rebuilding, painting, etc.

Revised all doctrines

Realized that Protestantism was nonsense that came out of ignorance

Set up schools to educate and enlighten people: Ursalines for the women and Jesuits for the men

Inquisition: a group of people would travel throughout areas looking for heretics and execute them on the spot

Index of Forbidden books: destroyed books by Erasmus, Luther, Copernicus, etc.

Monastic orders arose due to the ideal to focus on simplicity

Mendicant Friars, Dominicans, ...

Rid the area of all heretics

Stamp out Protestant Reformation

Divorced Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine

Acted as a regent for Edward

Introduced all protestant doctrines

Wrote The Book of Common Prayer which was imposed on all churches

Announced the king of England to be a supreme ruler

Act of Supremacy

recognized Henry VIII as the "Supreme Head of the Church of England"

Required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his marriage to Anne Boleyn

Restored Catholicism

Restored the union with Rome

Papal authority over England was restored

Maintained close relations with powerful nations through intermarriages

Massacred 300 Protestants including Cromwell

Attempt of reconciliation

Tried to restore Protestant and Catholic doctrines

Church of England became independent again

Anglican Church: much more Catholic that Protestant

War with Spain broke out

British navy defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588

Spanish army

Defeated by the British navy

Regent ruler while her son was an infant

Huguenots were gaining power in France with their growing population

Catholic oppression

She supported Catholicism but didn't support fighting between Catholics and Protestants

Her major concern was to avoid civil war

Granted Protestants freedom to worship everywhere outside of towns and indoors inside towns

Devoutly Catholic French family

One of 3 powerful families

Influenced Catherine de Medici while she was ruling

Driving force on the Catholic side of the wars of religion

As the wars progressed in France, they became very violent against the Huguenots

Leader of the Protestant resistance/forces

One of the heirs in line for the throne of the king of France, competing against Henry II and Henry of Guise

Eventually assumed the throne

Converted back to Catholicism after assuming the throne to keep the peace

Founded a sort of religious peace

Issued the Edict of Nantes

The Guise family led a massacre on a Protestant congregation

Started the open fighting of this war

10,000 Huguenots were massacred

20,000 Huguenots throughout France were massacred the next day

August 24, 1572

Wealthy noble man; one of the wealthiest land owners

Emerged as the new leader of the rebellion in 1564

Had lands in the Netherlands, France, and some German states

Fighting impoverished him

Announced the independence of the Netherlands from Spain in 1581

Protestants vs Catholics

Lutherans vs Catholics

Lutherans vs Calvinists

Reinforced local sovereignty

Roman Catholic Church had no control over their lands anymore

Lands became Lutheran lands

Local princes and rulers were to determine the religion of their subjects

Calvinism was not recognized as a legal religion

Gave Calvinists legal recognition

Permitted them to determine the religion of their subjects and retain lands they gained during fighting

Destroyed the socially, orderly, organized society

Emergence of Absolutism

People were willing to support a more authoritarian government

God gave rulers the right to rule

Divine right from God given to the ruler to hold power

Wrote Politics Drawn from Scripture in 1709 arguing for the concept of divine right

Rulers would have religious justification from the Bible to be absolute rulers

Religious support for absolutism

Political philosopher

Wrote Leviathan in 1651

Human kind is naturally evil, and without absolute rule, human kind would destroy itself

Started with France (Louis XIV)

Other European states basically copied France - Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia

Zemskii Sabor, Russia's Estates-General, was not called into session for as long as the absolute monarchy ruled

The Netherlands (on continental Europe) and England were NOT absolutist states - they had a constitutional/limited government with a representative body

England's Parliament was still called into session

King of France

First real absolutist ruler

Set the tone for French Absolutism

Took away power from aristocracy and nobility when he assumed power

Built the palace of Versailles

to control the nobility

Built near Paris

Absolutist power distrusted the nobility

Part of the scientific revolution

Brought back into life Aristarchus's heliocentric theory (sun-centered)

The Church and Martin Luther condemned this theory - they believed in the geocentric theory (earth-centered)

Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, initially trying to prove the geocentric theory mathematically but ended up proving the opposite - that everything revolved around the sun

Theory of gravity

Revolutionary theory that the universe is functional according to a set of scientific laws, not chaotic

Self-regulating according to scientific laws

The universe was chaotic - everything operated according to a chaotic pattern and not a set of laws

Everything revolved around the Earth and not the Sun

German mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher

Suggested that the heavenly bodies revolved around the sun in a set elliptical pattern

Had gotten closer than anyone else at this point in time

First to create the telescope

Able to see sunspots, Saturn's rings, Jupiter's satellites

Further supported the heliocentric view which was still not supported except by the scientists

Inductive and deductive reasoning

Knowledge is based on research and observation

Start with specific ideas/research/observations and then create a theory

Specifics to hypothesis/theory

People want to prove a theory that they've already created by then going into specific details and doing specific research

Hypothesis/theory to specifics

Associated with creating the scientific method

Invented analytical geometry

Critical of absolutism because no one had any rights under the king's absolute rule unless he chose to give it to them

Many similarities lay between the ancient Chinese philosophers and enlightenment philosophers

Seek out scientific laws to govern human society - progress was inevitable once these laws were discovered

Criticized absolutism in the church

Wrote The Persian Letters and Spirit of the Laws

The Persian Letters criticized Christian society and the church - called them constrained people because they had limited freedom

Metaphysical concept of God

Criticized absolutism in the church

Wrote The Philosophical Dictionary

Metaphysical concept of God

Project of the Enlightenment edited by Denis Diderot

76 volume set encyclopedia

Recorded all of the knowledge and philosophies that were discovered during the enlightenment

Documentation of all of the ideas that were coming about - scientific and philosophical

Laissez-faire: term that means basically that government and people should not interfere with the way the market is working - leave it alone and that will work best

Economy works best without government intervention

Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

Associated with Laissez-faire

Argued for natural rights like life, liberty, and the right to have property

People were really beginning to search for the best government style to give them these natural rights - rejecting absolutism

Many people supported an enlightened monarchy (Limited monarchy) - best way to protect the natural rights of people because they would be checked by a representative body (supported by Voltaire and Montesquieu)

Furthered the idea of the enlightened monarchy

Wrote The Social Contract - established a concept called general will - rulers should observe the rights of the people and what the people generally want is what the people should generally get

Did not support majority rule - focused on compromise among all involved parties (majority and minority compromise on issues)

Not a constitutional monarchy

Still one ruler, but that one ruler rules with an enlightened mindset trying to support the general will of the people

Supported education, popular opinion, ...

Wanted to find new ways to reach Southeast Asia, India, and China

Wanted to avoid the Muslims

Growing population

Very profitable

Spreading the gospel

Portuguese sailor and navigator

Laid the foundation for Portuguese overseas expansion

Navigated and explored Ceuta, Madera, Azores, African Coasts, and the Cape of Good Hope

Spanish sailor Influenced by Marco Polo

Believed there should be a way to reach China and India

Reached Palos and the West Indies

First settlements in the West Indies: Cuba and Hispaniola

Italian explorer who lived in China and India

Left a diary of his travels to China and India and the wealth and prosperity they were experiencing

Encouraged Europe to find other trade roads to the area

The Bull of Demarcation

Inter Caetera

Suggested a line that divided the spheres for exploration

West went to Spain

Most of the East went to Portugal

First Portuguese voyage

Rounded the Cape of Good Hope

Eventually crossed the Indian Ocean and explored the West Indian Coast

Second Portuguese voyage

Went too far west (Crossed the Atlantic)

Reached a new continent - Brazil

South and Central America at Tenochtitlan

Conflict arose between the Spanish and native Aztecs, but the Spanish overpowered the Aztecs with help from the Aztec's enemy neighbors and settled here

They later rebuilt the city and named it Mexico City It became the capital and base camp for further explorations

The first colony in what is now the United States was St. Augustine, but it was later taken by the English

Spanish sailor

First to circumnavigate the globe

Also rounded the tip of South America

Set up camp in the Philippines where there was much conflict between natives and Europeans

He was later killed in the Philippines

They couldn't afford it due to wars of religion and dynastic conflict

Spain and Portugal banked in the Netherlands, so they eventually gained enough money to begin their explorations and set up the Dutch East India Company in Africa

England colonized southeast Asia

New plants and animals were introduced: cows, sheep, goats, horses, and cereal crops to America and tomatoes, potatoes, squash, beans, and corn to Europe

Microorganisms, viruses, germs, and bacteria were also introduced to the Americas, causing the population to decline

Europeans treated natives inhumanely

Set up plantation economies in the colonies - they needed labor, so they got involved in the slave trade (Africa)

Trans-Saharan slave trade only produced a few slaves

Most slaves came from the Arab/Muslim Slave Trade of Southeastern Europe, which declined

Slavery shifted from the Mediterranean to the New World

The plantation economy originally popular in the Mediterranean became popular in the New World from the shift

Africans could stand up to diseases better

Natives new the land, making it easier for them to escape

Europeans such as convicts

Native groups

Involved in the slave trade

Kilva, Sofala, Mombasa

Ruler of an east African clan

Held a monopoly over the Swahili gold trade

Involved in conflicts with the Portuguese

Enlightenment's Humanitarianism

Liberalism

Bad impact on Africa - hampers the process of nation-state building

Waged war in order to get people who could be sold as slaves

Tensions and conflict

Demographic impact - no general population decline because of slave trade, but if slavery didn't happen, population in Africa would be much higher

Shifting trade roads declined their importance as a commercial power

The Habsburg Empire was trying to reclaim territory they had lost

The Russian Empire was expanding and wanted to gain access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea

Europeans began to exploit their newfound ways to reach other areas

Portuguese built trading posts on the Eastern Indian Coast and supported the Hindu people against the Muslims

Mughal Ruler

Wanted to expand

Penetrated southward trying to annex areas in the center (Hindu People)

Conflict that happened involving the Sepoys between Britain and France over who would have control in India

Britain won, becoming the leading European power in India

Conflict between Parliament and the absolutist Stuart monarchy

The Stuart monarchy didn't want any outside influence in the government and the Parliament was a representative body

Absolutism

Supported the theory of divine right

Led to a civil war

Conflict between representative bodies/constitutional monarchies and absolutism

Scottish Rebellion - invaded England and almost destroyed England during the reign of Charles I

Short and Long Parliaments

Conflict between absolutism and parliament

Beheading of King Charles I

Condemned absolutism

Tried to limit the power of the king

Led the way to the constitutional monarchy

Assumed control of the new English Republic after the execution of Charles I

Acted as a dictator

Eventually was overthrown and Charles II restored the Stuart Monarchy

Appointed as king and queen by Parliament after Charles II died

The Bill of Rights came about

Instituted a constitutional monarchy in England

Limited the power of the king and queen

Philosophers Montesquieu and Voltaire were in favor of this

Observed the natural rights and freedoms of the citizens of England

Indirect taxes on sugar and paper that gave money to the English Monarch

The Stamp Act required people to buy official paper to conduct all transactions or else they would not be valid

Brought resistance from the colonies Led to a revolution and war of independence

A series of 5 laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 regarding the colonies

Sparked even more rage among the colonies against the Parliament

Appointed the Confederation of States of the colonies

Announced the United States of America in July 1776

Problems between the citizens and the monarchy

Social problems such as harvest failure

Money crisis

France was involved in many wars prior and during this time

The Royal family was living well beyond their means

Taxation on the 3rd Estate

The Enlightenment taking place in Europe put the idea of a more enlightened and less feudal form of government

French king and queen

Last monarchs in France

Absolutists

Took the country further and further into debt

Financial minister

Tried to pass a new tax reform that would place a property tax on the nobility

Everyone from wealthy middle class to peasants and serfs

Everyone except the nobility and the clergy

Couldn't get Parliaments approval for his tax

It was an advisory council made up of nobility aristocracy

He was forced to call this assembly

The assembly later forced him to call the Estates General into session

France's Parliament

Hadn't been called into session i over 200 years, since Louis XIV became an absolute ruler

Same thing as the Estates General, they just renamed themselves

Abolished feudalism

Trying to help curb violence

Took the Tennis Court Oath - the Estates General vowed to create a constitution for France

The principles of the Enlightenment - liberty, equality, and fraternity

Distinguished the difference between active and passive citizens

Active: could pay a certain amount in taxes, so they could vote

Passive: couldn't pay a certain amount in taxes, so they couldn't vote

Jacobin Club and Sans-Culottes

They were radicals - didn't want to accept any kind of compromise between new and old; they wanted complete reformation

Wanted equality among all people despite wealth

Issued by Frederick William IV of Prussia and Leopold II of Austria

Austria and Prussia promised to help the French royal family who had fled France and were captured in Veronnes and imprisoned - try to restore them

to power

Their fleeing was viewed as an act of treason

The king was executed and the queen was later executed

Served only to strengthen the republicans in France who argued that the revolution would never be complete or secure as long as Louis remained king

The king and queen trying to escape - act of treason

Further gave radicals a platform to support their opinion

Responsible for the defense of the nation

Also heavily involved in the Reign of Terror - beheaded/executed thousands of people who opposed those in power.

Against those for the monarchy

Led by Maximilien Robespierre

Defense of the nation

Reign of terror

Five-member executive power in France

Inherently unstable

Declared that anyone advocating either the monarchy or the democratic constitution of 1793 whould be shot on sight