- Border established by Great Britain in order to avoid conflicts between American 

colonists and Native Americans

Influenced by good harbors, abundant forests, rocky soil, and a short growing season. 

Geographic factors influenced the economy of New England by promoting the growth of trade and 

manufacturing. Developed villages with town-hall meetings. Had small farms, commercial fishing, and the first 

American college.

- The climate and topography of the southeastern U.S. had a major impact on the history of 

the U.S. before 1860 because the region provided agricultural products that were processed in the North and in 

Europe. Developed plantations (large farms that used slave labor) because of fertile land and a long growing 

season

The relatively flat, grassy region of the U.S. between the Mississippi River and the Rocky 

Mountains is known as the Great Plains. The states with the largest percentage of land used for agriculture are 

located in areas with relatively flat terrain. Known for producing grain crops (aka food).

- led directly to the increased importation of enslaved Africans to the Western Hemisphere 

(colonies) 

- Economic policy used by the British in which the American Colonies served as a source of 

raw materials and a market to sell goods. British buy raw materials from the colonies and sell them finished 

products. Limited manufacturing in America. Limited colonies’ trade with other nations. This policy would 

eventually become one of the reasons for the American Revolution. 

Period of time when the British ignored the colonies because they only wanted to benefit 

from the economic prosperity of the colonies. Led to the development of independent colonial trade practices

- Caused by disputed land claims in the Ohio River valley between the French and the 

British (the French and Indians were on the same side). War led to the end of the period of Salutary Neglect, 

because of the British need to tax the American colonists in order to pay for the war. This increase in taxes 

became one of the major causes of the Revolutionary War (war for American independence from Great Britain

- Early colonial efforts in self- 

government. They all contributed to the development of representative democracy.

Early attempt to unify American colonies but under British rule. Many colonies 

objected to it because colonial assemblies did not want to give up their individual power.

independence Movement/Revolutionary War (American Revolution)

Declaration of Independence-

States the colonial grievances against British rule (a list of reasons for separating from Great Britain). 

• Written by Thomas Jefferson who was most influenced by the writers of the Enlightenment. 

• Is described as a statement of democratic principles rather than a framework for government.

• Takes ideas from John Locke’s theory of natural rights-power to govern belongs to the people (“consent of 

the governed”). 

• Contributed to the political development of the U.S. by presenting a clear statement of the social contract 

theory of government- the fundamental purpose of government is to secure the natural rights of the 

people. If a government denies its people certain basic rights, that government can be overthrown. 

• Similar to the Bill of Rights because both documents support limitations on governmental power and stress 

the importance of individual liberty. 

• NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION- Many colonists believed they could not be taxed by the British 

because they had no representatives in the British government, which means that the British did not have 

consent of the governed

 Published Common Sense which was influential in persuading American colonists to support 

colonial independence from Britain. Convinced many Americans who had been undecided on declaring 

independence from Britain

 Committees of Correspondence/Non-importation Agreements/Boston Tea Party 

First Continental Congress 

Major Events Leading to Revolutionary War

Sugar and Stamp Acts- 

requires colonists to house and 

feed British soldiers.

five people killed by 

British soldiers. 

Revolutionary War begins shortly after the signing of the Declaration of Independence. 

• American Colonies win the war and independence with the help of familiar land and foreign aid (France). 

• At the end of the Revolutionary War the Mississippi became the western boundary of the U.S. 

First form of government used by the U.S. after independence from Britain. First plan of union for the 

original 13 states. 

• At this point many Americans distrusted a strong central government because of their experiences 

under the rule of Great Britain. They wanted to limit the central government’s opportunities to 

infringe upon the people’s liberties so they established a decentralized (power is broken up and divided 

among many groups, not unified) political system in which the state governments had all the power. 

• Problems and Weaknesses- Largely unsuccessful at solving many major problems because most power 

remained with the state governments. Congress depended on the states for men and money to 

support an army. National (aka Federal) government could not enforce its laws. Congress constantly 

overrode the President’s vetoes. 

• States had the power to collect taxes, coin money, and control trade. 

It provided a system for governing the Western territories and a process for 

admitting new states to the union

Major American delegates (politicians) meet in Philadelphia to revise 

(correct) the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Settled a dispute over how the states would be represented in the national legislature aka Congress

(group of people who write and vote on laws). Delegates from states with small populations supported

the idea of equal representation for the states in the national legislature (ex New Jersey). Delegates from 

states with large populations supported the idea of representation based on the size of population (ex 

Virginia

- Created a bicameral legislature (two houses that write and vote on laws). One house would be 

based on population (House of Representatives) and the other house would have equal representation 

for all states (Senate).

- Solution to the problem of how to determine the number of representatives in the House 

of Representatives (branch of Congress) from states with large slave populations. Determined that 3/5 of the slave 

population would be counted for representation in the House

Differences

• Constitution strengthened the power of the Federal (aka national) Government. 

• Constitution granted Congress sole control over interstate and foreign commerce (trading between different 

states and trading with other countries). 

• Constitution created three separate, independent branches of government. 

• Constitution gave the Federal (national) Government the power to collect taxes.

Similarities 

• Both provided a national legislature (lawmaking body). 

• Both provided some form of cooperation between states.

• Federalists-

Group that supported ratification (make into a law) of the U.S. Constitution. Wanted a strong national 

government to provide order. Published the Federalist Papers which encouraged ratification of the Constitution.

Group that was against ratification of the Constitution. They believed it would threaten the rights of 

individual citizens. Did not want the national government to have too much power. Only agreed to ratify the 

Constitution after the addition of the Bill of Rights to the Constitution

Main purpose is to protect civil liberties and protect the people from government abuse. 

• Similar to the Declaration of Independence because both stress the importance of individual liberty. 

• Unreasonable Search and Seizure- Protects U.S. citizens from being jailed or searched for no reason. This 

amendment was put in because the British government used writs of assistance against American merchants 

during the colonial/Revolutionary War era. 

• 14th amendment extends the protections of the Bill of Rights to include actions of state governments (states 

must also obey the Bill of Rights). 

• Major Rights- Right to assemble peacefully, freedom of speech, protection against unreasonable search and 

seizure, etc. 

• Separation of church and state (religion is separate from the government) is established in the 1st Amendment. 

• Freedom of Speech (1st Amendment)

U.S. Constitution- A statement of rules and procedures for governing the U.S

Enlightenment Influence-

• Idea of sovereignty of the people came from social contract philosophers of the Enlightenment period. 

Sovereignty is derived from the consent of the governed (only the citizens give the government the power to 

rule). 

• Consent of the governed concept comes from enlightenment philosophers. 

• Limitations on the power of government were influenced by the ideas of John Locke and Baron de Montesquieu

(checks & balances, three branches of government). 

Democracy- A government for the people by the people. A democracy must have citizen participation in government. 

Ex) the citizens of the U.S. choose their congressional representatives (House & Senate) through elections. The most 

essential feature of democratic government is a free and open election process. 

Republican Government- Described as one in which representatives are elected by the people. 

Division of Power-The framers of the Constitution included the concepts of federalism, checks &balances, and 

separation of powers in the document because they feared a government with unlimited power. 

Federalism- Division of powers between the national and state government. 

• A constitutional principle that establishes limits on the powers of the government (the state and Federal 

government share different powers so neither can become too powerful). 

• Reserved Powers- Powers only granted to the state governments by the Constitution. Ex) Public Education, 

Delegated Powers -

- Powers only granted to the Federal Government by the Constitution. EX) Power to 

declare war, coin money, control interstate commerce.

Legislative Branch- AKA Congress (House of Representatives and Senate) Group of representatives from each 

state that propose, write, vote on laws, approve treaties. 

• Executive Branch- The President of the U.S. and his cabinet. 

1. Chief Legislator- It is the President’s role to ask executive department staff to propose and 

support legislation. 

2. Chief Executive- President is highest military official (Commander & Chief). 

3. Chief Diplomat- President meets and negotiates with other foreign rulers. Ex) Wilson at treaty 

of Versailles, Regan meets with Gorbachev, Jimmy carter negotiates Camp David Accords. 

4. From time to time, the President must in

- Federal Courts and Supreme Court. 

Marbury v. Madison

• Heard under Chief Justice John Marshall.

• Established judicial review. 

• Strengthened the Judiciary branch (Supreme Court) of the U.S. 

• First time a Federal law was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court 

Each of the three branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial) checks the other 

to ensure that no one branch has too much power. 

• President can be impeached (removed from office by trial) by congress. 

• Congress (legislative branch) can pass a bill and the President (executive branch) can sign the bill into law or 

veto (reject) the bill. Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. 

• President can negotiate treaties but the senate must ratify (pass) them. 

• The Supreme Court can rule that a law is unconstitutional. 

• The President appoints Supreme Court judges but the Senate must approve the appointments

Amendments (changes to the constitution), the Elastic Clause, necessary and proper 

clause, unwritten constitution, and Judicial Review all allow for the Constitution to meet the needs of a changing society 

(adapt to changing times). 

• The elastic clause has been used primarily to broaden the power of Congress (because it allows Congress to pass 

more laws). 

• Examples- Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), Social Security Act (1935), Louisiana Purchase, creation of Federal 

Communications Commission (FCC), creation of Federal Reserve were all enacted using the elastic clause

Practices of the U.S. government that are based on custom and tradition, but not actually 

written anywhere in the Constitution.

Examples- creation of the presidential cabinet, political parties, committee system in Congress, Judicial Review, 

lobbying, 

• Limiting the President’s time in office to two terms was established under the unwritten constitution and later 

included in the written Constitution.

President of the U.S. is elected by winning electoral votes from each state, not a popular vote. 

• The number of electoral votes a state receives is based on the size of its population. 

• - records population data to determine the number of electoral college votes from each state, as well as the 

number of members in the House of Representatives. 

• Some presidential candidates skip campaigning in low population states. 

• The winner of the popular vote can lose the election (happened in 1876 and 2000). 

• This indicates that the authors of the original Constitution did not completely trust the common voter to make 

decisions. 

• Ratification of a constitutional amendment is the only way to eliminate the Electoral College. 

- First President of the U.S. and Revolutionary War general. 

• Did not want to become entangled (involved) with European affairs. 

• Issued the Proclamation of Neutrality in order to isolate the U.S. from Europe and keep it independent. 

• Set a precedent (example) for all future presidents by using the unwritten constitution to form the first cabinet 

(group of close advisers to the President). 

• Whiskey Rebellion- Passage of a new excise tax led to a rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Washington used 

state militia (army) to put down the rebellion, demonstrating that the new national government intended to 

enforce federal laws. 

• His actions and policies strengthened the Federal Government. 

• Washington pursued neutrality because he believed the U.S. needed time to gain economic and military 

strength. 

• Farewell Address- Washington urges the U.S. to avoid European conflicts, stay neutral, and avoid alliances with 

any other nation of the world. 

First Secretary of Treasury of the U.S. 

• Proposed a national bank to improve the economic position of the U.S. government. 

• Argued that the government has the power to create a National Bank based on the elastic clause of the 

Constitution. 

• Established a sound financial plan for the new nation. 

• Devised a plan to pay off U.S. debt. 

• Urged Congress to pass a protective tariff (tax on foreign goods) to encourage the growth of U.S. 

manufacturing. 

• Believed the government should exercise all powers necessary and proper to meet its responsibilities (loose 

interpretation of the Constitution)

Opposed Hamilton’s plan to create a national bank because the plan depended on a loose interpretation of the 

Constitution. 7

• Believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution (you have to follow the Constitution exactly as it is written). 

• Sought to avoid involvement in European affairs (isolationist). 

• Disagreement between Hamilton and Jefferson over the interpretation of the Constitution led to the 

development of the political party system. 

• Authorized the Lewis and Clark expedition in order to explore a route to the Pacific Ocean (helped lead to 

westward expansion). 

• Made the Louisiana Purchase while President of the U.S

In deciding to purchase the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson had to overcome the problem of contradicting his 

belief in a strict interpretation of the Constitution. 

• He used the Elastic Clause and implied powers to make the purchase. 

• The purchase was made because he was worried about a strong French and Spanish presence and wanted 

American control of New Orleans which had a valuable port. 

• Secured U.S. control of the Mississippi River. 

• Farmers needed a water route to help ship their products to market. 

• Farmers in the Ohio River Valley gained greatest economic benefit as a result of the purchase. 

• Focused the U.S. on westward expansion

John Marshall- Chief Justice of the U.S. 

• Decisions as Chief Justice of the U.S. resulted in expansion of the power of Federal Government. 

• Helped create a sense of national unity by strengthening the Federal Government at the expense of State 

government. 

• Helped make the Constitution more flexible by interpreting the Constitution broadly. 

War of 1812- War between U.S. and Britain over trade in the Atlantic Ocean. 

• War Hawks- A group of Congressmen from the South and West who supported the War of 1812. 

• Ended by the Treaty of Ghent. 

• Increased American nationalism- the loyalty of a people to their values, traditions, and/or geographic region 

(intense pride for one’s nation or culture).

Monroe Doctrine (1823)-Foreign policy intended to limit European influence in the Western Hemisphere. 

• Warned Europe against any further colonization in Latin America. 

• Resulted from the close geographic relationship between the U.S. and Latin America. 

• U.S. foreign policy increased enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine during the late 19th and early 20th

century. 

• Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine - President Theodore Roosevelt would later add to the Monroe 

Doctrine to make the U.S. the “policeman of the Western Hemisphere.”. Roosevelt’s foreign policy was that the 

Monroe Doctrine permitted the U.S. to intervene actively in the affairs of Latin American nations

Starting with the election of Jackson in 1828, voter participation increased due to the end of property 

requirements for voting by many states (White, male U.S. citizens no longer had to own property in order to 

vote which meant that lower class citizens who could not afford land, gained the opportunity to vote).

• Used the spoils system to provide jobs to political party supporters. The spoils system resulted in elected 

officials rewarding their supporters with government jobs. 

• Jackson claimed that the spoils system increased democracy in the federal government because it allowed larger 

numbers of citizens to hold office. 

• Expanded presidential powers through frequent use of the veto. 

• Forced Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River to modern day Oklahoma (the trip became 

known as the Trail of Tears. 

• Worcester v. Georgia- Supreme Court ruled in favor of Native Americans who were being forcefully removed 

from Georgia, but President Andrew Jackson did not enforce the ruling. 

• Whig party began as a group unified against Andrew Jackson. 

• Political Machines- Politicians in these organizations often accepted bribes in return for favors.

A waterway connecting Lake Erie to the Hudson River that aided the economic development of the U.S. by

lowering the cost of shipping goods from the Midwest to the Atlantic coast. The farmers in the Midwest could ship their 

goods to merchants in the east who would trade and sell the goods for a larger profit. North East economies (ex, New 

York, New England) promoted the growth of trade and manufacturing as a result. 

Gold Rush 1849- Resulted in an increase in westward migration. Led to the growth of the populations of California and 

the western territories. 

Homestead Act 1862- Promoted development of western lands by providing free land to settlers. Demonstrated the 

federal government’s commitment to the settlement of western territories. Most directly affected the Great Plains. 

Pacific (Transcontinental Act) Railway Act 1862

• In the second half of the 1800’s, the federal government encouraged the building of transcontinental railroads 

by giving land to the railroad co mpanies. 

Manifest Destiny- Idea that the U.S. should possess the entire continent. 

• Used to support westward expansion of the U.S. to the Pacific Ocean. 

• Used as an excuse to expand into lands claimed by other nations. 

• Led to the annexation of Texas, and the Mexican War. 

• During the 1840’s abolitionists (people who wanted to make slavery illegal) opposed annexation of new western 

territory because they feared the admission of new slave states. 

• Major Abolitionists- William Lloyd Garrison, Harriet Tubman, Harriet Beecher Stowe 

• Territorial expansion led to increased tensions over slavery (should the new territories be open to slavery?).

Policies involving Texas, California, and Oregon Territory were all efforts to fulfill the goal of 

Manifest Destiny. 

All were efforts to settle disputes over 

the spread of slavery to the western territories. The debate was whether new states admitted to the union would be 

free or slave states. Rapid migration caused by the discovery of gold in California led to the Compromise. 

The idea that settlers had the right to decide whether slavery would be legal in their new territory

or not. Set up by Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Book describing slavery that contributed to the start of the Civil 

War by intensifying Northern dislike of slavery

A secret network that aided slaves in escaping slave-owners and reaching free states. 

Supported by many abolitionists

U.S. Civil War

• Abraham Lincoln is elected and Southern states secede (leave or break away) from the Union, causing 

a war between the North (Union) and the South (Confederate States). The two major issues dividing 

the North and South were States rights and the status of slavery

Reasons for Succession of Southern States- 

• Increasing sectionalism

• Disagreements over states rights issues (the South felt that the Federal Government did not have the right to 

abolish slavery in their states). 

• Breakdown of compromise- failure of the Compromise of 1850 1820 and Kansas Nebraska Act. 

• Election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Lincoln made it very clear that he opposed slavery in the new territories. 

Southerners wanted slavery extended to the new territories so the south could keep enough strength in the 

Senate to protect Southern interests (slavery).

• Abraham Lincoln-

Believed that sectional differences threatened to destroy the Union. “A house divided against itself cannot 

stand.” 

• As the Civil War began, Lincoln stated that his primary goal was to preserve the Union (states remain united). 

• Claimed that the government was a union of people and not of states. 

• Lincoln justified the war by stating that his oath of office required him to defend and preserve the Union

• Lincoln expands Presidential powers during wartime

• Suspended the writ of habeas corpus (law that prevents a person from being held in jail without just cause) 

during the Civil War. 

• Arrested and jailed anti-Unionists without giving a reason. 

 Order issued by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862 (effective Jan. 1863) that declared 

slaves free in the areas still held by the Confederates. Major purpose was to help the North win the Civil War because it 

helped keep England from siding with the South. 

North was better prepared economically to fight the war. 

• North had more human resources and war material. 

• Results (U.S. Civil War)-

Power of the central government (aka Federal Government) was strengthened over the power of the States. 

• The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments all led to greater Federal supremacy over the states.

• Secession was no longer regarded as an option to be exercised by States (States can’t try to leave the U.S. 

anymore). 

• North undergoes rapid economic growth and industrialization because it was stimulated by increased 

government demand for many products. The North’s economic growth during the Civil War was stimulated by 

increased government demand for many products in order to fight the war (ex: guns, supplies, transportation). 

Reconstruction Era- Time period following the Civil War, when the Southern States were reorganized and reintegrated 

back into the Union. 

• Marked by the military occupation of the South, attempts to remove a President, and major constitutional 

amendments. 

• Withdrawal of federal troops from the South marked the end of Reconstruction in the U.S. 

Primary goal was to restore Southern representation in Congress. 

• The Union should be restored as quickly as possible. Which could only happen if…….. 

• The former Confederate States are treated as if they had never actually left the Union. 

• Reject the idea of harsh punishments for the South.

• Forgive the Southerners and welcome them back into the Union.

Takes over for Lincoln after his assassination

Supported Lincoln’s policy of Reconstruction- wanted to allow the Southern States to reenter the nation as 

quickly as possible (wanted Southern States back in Congress). 

• The Radical Republicans in Congress disagreed with Johnson about how to handle Reconstruction, which led to 

the impeachment of Johnson. Johnson was officially impeached because he fired the Secretary of War, Edwin 

M. Stanton, without Senate approval, but the impeachment failed and Johnson remained in office. 

Reconstruction13th, 14th, 15th were all passed during the Reconstruction Era and 

showed that Federal powers could be expanded to protect the rights of minorities. 

13th Amendment (1865)-Law that formally abolished slavery in the U.S. 

14th Amendment- 

• Law that officially gave citizenship to African Americans and legally protected them under the Bill of Rights 

and U.S. Constitution. 

• Extends the protections of the Bill of Rights to include actions of state governments. 

• Allowed the National Government to place more restrictions on the actions of state governments. 

15th Amendment- Law that granted African Americans voting rights. Southern States collected poll taxes and 

required literacy tests in order to keep African Americans from exercising their voting rights. 

- 1870’s 1880’s

• Attempts by state and local governments to restrict the freedoms of African Americans after the end of the Civil 

War. 

• Led to an increase in violations of the rights of African-Americans. 

• Limited the effectiveness of the 13th, 14th

, and 15th amendments. 

• Provided the legal basis for racial segregation in the late 19th century (late 1800’s) U.S

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)- Supreme Court case that upheld the Jim Crow Laws based on the idea that the laws provided 

“separate but equal” public facilities for African Americans. This was based on a narrow interpretation of the 14th

amendment. Jim Crow Laws would not be ended until the passage of the Civil Rights Act 1964.

Black Codes Ku Klux Klan - Attempted to restrict the rights of former slaves and limit the effectiveness of the 14th and 

15th amendments. 

Sharecropping- system of farming most common in Southern States after the Civil War. Large numbers of former slaves 

earned a living by becoming sharecroppers on Southern farms, keeping them economically dependent on those farms 

(they still needed the same farms to survive even though they were no longer slaves). 

New South- Term that described changes in the Southern economy. Industrial development and agricultural 

diversification (growing different types of crops) were encouraged. 

• In the decades following the Civil War, overproduction which led to lowers prices of farm goods, caused 

economic hardship for farmers. 

Carpetbaggers- Northerners who moved down South to participate in Reconstruction governments.

Rise of Big Business (1865-1900) Federal Government followed laissez-faire economic policy. Trusts and monopolies 

were created by entrepreneurs to maintain control of the market. 

Robber Baron- Term used during the Gilded Age to characterize leaders of big business who used ruthless tactics when 

dealing with competitors. Ex: John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt. 

Gilded Age- Mark Twain labeled the late 1800’s the Gilded Age to describe the extremes of wealth and poverty (big 

differences between the rich and the poor). 

Urbanization- Rural (countryside) residents move to urban (inner city) areas in search of jobs. Size of cities increase. 

• Caused by industrialization. 

• How the Other Half Lives- Book by Jacob Riis that exposed the living conditions of urban slums (working-class, 

inner-city neighborhoods). Exposed the desperate lives of poor people to the general public in the U.S. 

• Urban middle class increased the most as a result of the Industrial Revolution. 

• Working Conditions -Rapid industrial growth leads to shift from rural to urban lifestyle, widespread use of child 

labor, and growth of tenements & slums (overcrowded inner city neighborhoods located near factories).

Immigration- Many immigrants traveling to the U.S. settled in urban areas in the North because rapid industrialization 

created many job opportunities. 

• Large numbers of immigrants were admitted to the U.S. during most of the 1800’s because the economy 

needed many unskilled factory workers. Factory owners strongly supported an open immigration policy in 

order to get cheap labor. 

• Immigration increased from Ireland to the U.S. during the 1840’s due to crop failures (Irish Potato Famine) in 

Ireland that led to mass starvation. During the 1850’s, Irish immigrants were discriminated against because they 

practiced the Roman Catholic Religion. 

• New Immigrants- Came primarily from southern and eastern Europe (Ex: Italy & Russia) between 1890-1915. 

Were culturally different from the earlier immigrants. Many believed they would fail to assimilate into American 

society. 

• During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s many members of Congress supported legislation requiring literacy tests

for immigrants in an attempt to restrict immigration from southern and eastern Europe. 

• Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)- Limited the amount of Chinese immigrants entering the U.S. An example of 

Nativism. 

Nativism- Group of Americans who were angry about Immigrants taking jobs from Americans and working for cheaper 

wages. Wanted the adoption of a quota system to limit immigration. Supported the Chinese Exclusion Act, the 

Gentlemen’s Agreement, and the National Origins Act.

Monopoly- A company that controls or dominates an industry in order to eliminate competition and control prices. 

Pools/ Trusts- Created by industrialists during the late 1800’s to increase profits by minimizing competition. 14

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)- Created the Interstate Commerce Commission. Marked the first time that a Federal 

regulatory agency (a branch of the government that watches the economy) was established. Was passed in response to 

demands of farmers and small business owners. 

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)- Law passed by congress in an attempt to limit the power of monopolies. 

Clayton Antitrust Act – Declared that unions were not conspiracies in restraint of trade (made Unions legal). In 

response to business combinations limiting competition. 

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)- Supreme Court case that allowed the Federal Government to regulate interstate commerce 

(business and trading between different states). .

Wabash v. Illinois- limited the power of big business. 

Federal Reserve System- Established by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) which was intended to provide a stable supply of 

money and credit. Supported by President Woodrow Wilson. The Federal Reserve can reduce a recession by lowering 

interest rates. 

Graduated/Progressive Income Tax- Authorized by the 16th amendment (1913). Based on the idea that people with 

higher incomes should pay a greater percentage of their income in taxes (taxes are based on the ability to pay).

Progressive Movement- A movement to correct the economic and social abuses of industrial society. Supported 

consumer protection, women’s suffrage, secret ballot, income tax, direct election of Senators, Prohibition.

• Progressives- Believed the government needs to regulate big business to protect consumers and workers. 

Opposed the Laissez-faire attitude of the late 19th century. The progressive movement was a response to the 

industrialization and urbanization of the U.S. because these factors led to poor, unsafe living conditions and 

abusive big businesses. 

• Jane Adams- Established settlement houses that provided assistance to the poor. 

• Robert M. LaFollette- Progressive reformer who wanted to start a civil rights movement for African Americans 

(was unsuccessful). 

• W.E.B. Du Bois- Formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in order to 

end segregation and win equal rights. 

• Booker T. Washington- Believed that African Americans should pursue education as the key to improving social 

status. Founded a vocational training institution in the late 1800s to improve economic opportunities for African 

Americans. Differed from W.E.B. Du Bois on the best way that African Americans could effectively achieve 

equality. 

• During this era, states established public schools and passed compulsory education laws. Reformers 

argued that an educated, literate population was necessary for a successful democracy

• Through laws such as initiative, referendum, recall, direct primary, and secret ballot progressives 

attempted to increase participation in government by citizens and involve voters more directly. 

• Direct Election of Senators- Established by the 17th amendment. Citizens directly voted on who would 

represent them in the Senate in order to make the Senate more responsive to the people. 15

• Civil Service Exams- Laws were passed requiring individuals to pass tests before obtaining government 

jobs in order to eliminate patronage and corruption in government hiring (prevent the people in the 

government from hiring their friends or accepting bribes). This was a reaction to the Spoils System

(officials rewarding their supporters with government jobs).

Labor Union- An organization of employees formed to bargain with the employer in order to get certain things such as 

better working conditions, benefits, and pay. Business leaders opposed the efforts of Labor unions to organize and 

improve conditions. Clayton Antitrust Act made unions legal. 

Collective Bargaining- Discussions between labor union leaders and management (owners/ bosses) to agree on a 

contract for workers. 

Wagner Act (1935)- Legalized collective bargaining. 

Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire- Tragedy in which many women workers were killed in a factory fire. Drew national 

attention to the need to protect the safety of workers. 

Samuel Gompers- Organized workers into unions in order to strive for better conditions and better pay. 

American Federation of Labor- The first long-lasting, successful labor union in the U.S., because it fought for the rights 

of skilled workers, focused on gains in wages and working conditions, and was organized on a nationwide basis, 

Pure Food & Drug Act (1906)- Law that provided federal inspection of meat products and forbade the manufacture, sale, 

or transportation of unsafe food products and poisonous medicines. Resulted from demands for direct consumer 

protection. Federal government was able to pass it because of the elastic clause. 

Meat Inspection Act- Created sanitary standards established for slaughterhouses and meat processing plants. Passed 

as a result of writings of muckrakers. The publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair led congress to pass the law. 

Muckraker- Writers during the progressive era that exposed social ills of inner cities, factory conditions, and political 

corruption. Focused on issues including the monopoly of Standard Oil, cattle processing, meat packing, child labor, and 

wages. Ex) Upton Sinclair, Ida M Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens, Jacob Riis.

Populist Party- A political coalition of farming interests directed against banking and railroads. 

• A third party that eventually disappeared but proposed ideas that later became law. 

• Expressed the discontent of many farmers with their ongoing economic problems. 

• Proposed the national income tax, free and unlimited coinage of silver, direct election of senators, government 

ownership of railroads. Supported anti-trust laws.

• Similar to the Progressive Party because both opposed the strict laissez-faire attitudes of the federal 

government, and both wanted the use of Federal power to correct social and economic problems. 

Granger Movement- Wanted to force railroads to lower freight fates. Wanted to pass laws increasing Federal 

regulation of monopolies. Supported by farmers in the west

New Nationalism- Policy designed to help the U.S. solve problems caused by industrialization. 

• Square Deal- Increased the role of the Federal Government in dealing with social and economic problems. 16

• Trust Busting- Had policies that encouraged competition in business by attacking monopolies, trusts, pools, 

etc. Became known as the Trustbuster. Believed the government should regulate big business.

• Big Stick Policy- “Walk softly but carry a big stick.” Policy that was used by the U.S. to police the Western 

Hemisphere and intervene in Latin American affairs. Wanted to prevent the extension of European control over 

Latin America. 

• Expanded the Monroe Doctrine- Claimed the Monroe Doctrine permits the U.S. to intervene actively in the 

affairs of Latin American nations. 

• U.S. influence in the Caribbean Sea region is significantly increased as a result of Roosevelt’s policies. 

• Helped negotiated the end of the Russo-Japanese war (war between Russia and Japan). 

• A primary objective of his was to awaken public interest in conservation efforts (saving the environment). Set 

aside land for national forests and water projects. 

Between the 1890’s and the start of World War I (1914), the U.S. expanded its access to overseas markets and 

raw materials through the policy of imperialism (a policy of extending your rule over foreign countries). 

• Reasons for Imperialism- Due to the expansion of American industry (big businesses and factories) during the 

1800’s, the U.S. needed to obtain raw materials and new markets (the U.S. needed more raw materials to make 

products and a place to sell those products). 

• Dollar Diplomacy -attempted to increase the U.S. power in Latin America. Indicated a U.S. desire to interact 

with foreign countries in ways that were profitable to U.S. corporations. Corporations needed a place to sell 

surplus (extra) goods. 

• U.S. practices economic nationalism by implementing protective tariffs to help American industry. 

• Protective Tariff- A tax on foreign products making them more expensive so people will buy American products 

instead. 

• Open Door Policy (1899-1900)- Issued in order to secure equal trade opportunities in China and guarantee 

access to its markets. 

• U.S. annexes (take over a territory) Hawaii and the Philippines. 

Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hears used yellow journalism to generate public support for the war. 

They wrote articles about the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor. 

• As a result of the war, the U.S. built the Panama Canal so they could move more quickly between oceans in 

order to increase trade and military security. 

• A major result was that U.S. obtained overseas colonies and was recognized as a world power

Supported the creation of the Federal Reserve System (1913) in order to regulate the amount of money in

circulation. 

• Worked to limit the power of big business. 

• New Freedom- Designed to help the U.S. solve problems caused by industrialization (big business). 

• Adopted a policy of neutrality (not taking sides in the war) at the beginning of World War I.

• Claimed that the Progressive movement would be best served by continued peace (avoiding WWI)

During his reelection campaign in 1916 he used the slogan “He kept us out of war,” but after he was reelected in 

1917 Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany because Germany resumed unrestricted submarine 

warfare. 

• In the years before the U.S. entered WWI, Wilson violated his position of strict neutrality by supporting 

economic policies that favored the Allied nations (Britain & France)

Causes of WWI 

• At the outbreak of WWI in Europe (1914), most Americans believed that their country should stay out of war. 

• During the first 3 years of WWI, the U.S. tried to maintain freedom of the seas and trade with European nations 

(Britain & France) but Germany attacked any ships that traded with their enemies. 

• German’s violate the freedom of the seas by resuming unrestricted submarine warfare (which became a major 

reason for why the U.S. entered WWI in 1917. 

• Wilson declares “The world must be made safe for democracy” in order to justify his decision to ask Congress to

declare war against Germany. 

During War

• Espionage Act/ Sedition Act (1917)- Used by Wilson’s administration during WWI to silence critics of the war

effort. This illustrated that national interest is sometimes given priority over individual rights. 

• Schenck v. U.S. (1919)- Supreme court ruled that freedom of speech for war protesters could be limited during 

wartime. The “clear-and present danger” doctrine permits the government to limit speech that threatens the 

security of the nation. Freedom of speech is not absolute. 

• During WWI, relations between the U.S. and Mexico were characterized by hostility and suspicion. 

• Wilson ordered controls on the U.S. industry to fight WWI. 

• These actions show that Executive (aka Presidential) power can increase during times of international crises. 

Similar to Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt because they all expanded presidential 

powers. 

E

WWI was a significant benefit to the U.S. economy because it provided a market for the U.S. industry (the 

armies of the U.S. and its allies needed a lot of supplies which gave U.S. factories a lot of business). 

• Growth of automobile industry after WWI changed the U.S. economy by stimulating the development of other 

new industries. 

• In terms of international trade and finance, the U.S. emerged from WWI as a leading creditor nation (U.S. 

becomes the world’s leading economic power). 

• American women helped gain support for the suffrage (right to vote) movement by working in wartime 

industries. 

• African Americans migrate to the North during and following WWI as a result of the availability of new factory 

jobs

Fourteen Points-statement of principles proposed by President Wilson that would govern the postwar world. 

• Designed to provide for a just and lasting peace. 18

• Aimed to prevent international tensions from leading to war again. 

• Believed that the principal of self-determination should be applied to people of all nations (they should 

be free to rule themselves (aka no more colonies). 

• Established the League of Nations. 

• U.S. follows a policy of neutrality & isolationism during the 1920’s and 30’s because of a disillusionment 

(disappointment, frustration) with WWI and its results. 

• Congress refuses to sign the Treaty of Versailles (even though President Wilson wanted them to) because many 

Senators objected to the U.S. membership in the League of Nations, fearing that it would pull the U.S. into 

another major war. 

• Washington Naval Conferences & Kellog-Briand Pact- Were attempts by the U.S. to achieve peace and arms

control in the decade after WWI 

• Bolshevik Revolution (Communist takeover of Russia 1917) increased nativism leading to the Red Scare (fear of 

Communism in the U.S. following WWI). 

• Passage of the immigration quote acts of 1921 & 1924 (restricted the amount of immigrants from Southern and 

Eastern Europe) because of a recurrence of nativist attitudes following WWI (Americans became more fearful 

and hatful of foreigners being communists 

Women were granted the right to vote through the 19th Amendment during the Progressive Era (1917). 

• The national effort to ratify women’s suffrage (right to vote) was strengthened by the economic opportunities 

created by World War I because women had to perform the jobs of men while they were away at war. 

• Seneca Falls Convention- 

• Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucretia Mott were major female leaders 

of the women’s rights movement. 

• Many of the western states granted women the right to vote before the adoption of the 19th amendment

because frontier (western) women played important roles in society

Roaring Twenties

The 1920’s are called the “Roaring Twenties” because of widespread social and economic change and changing cultural 

values (social change). During the 20’s there was a conflict between old and new American ideals

Prohibition- Law authorized by the 18th Amendment that banned the manufacture and sale of alcoholic

beverages. 

• Led to an increase in organized crime. 

• Respect for the law decreased. 

• Led to a public awareness that unpopular laws are difficult to enforce. 

• Prohibition was officially ended by the 21st Amendment. 

• Increase of nativism can be illustrated by the Red Scare, trial of Sacco and Vanzetti, and the activities of the Ku 

Klux Klan. 

• Immigration acts of the 1920’s attempted to use quotas to limit immigration from southern and eastern Europe. 19

• Sacco and Vanzetti- Two immigrant anarchists who were convicted of murder and executed with very little 

evidence during the height of the Red Scare. Demonstrated U.S. intolerance toward immigrants. Represented 

a threat to civil liberties. 

• Scopes Trial - John Scopes was convicted in 1925 for teaching about evolution (because it conflicted with what 

the Bible says). 

• The conviction was supported by some Americans who wanted to promote traditional fundamentalist 

values (people who believe strictly in a set of principals and do not consider other views or opinions). 

• Illustrated a conflict concerning religious beliefs and scientific theories. 

• Illustrated a larger conflict over cultural values in American society during the 20’s. 

• Harlem Renaissance- African American authors and artists used literature and art to celebrate the richness of 

their heritage. Increased pride in African American culture. Ex) Langston Hughes, Bessie Smith, Duke Ellington. 

• Flappers- Women during the 1920’s that rejected traditional feminine roles. Refused to conform to society’s 

expectations (they acted and dressed how they wanted to, not how society told them they should). 

• Automobiles, radio, and motion pictures standardized American culture (influenced what people considered to 

be “American culture”).

Henry Ford- Use of the assembly line in the production of automobiles led directly to a decrease in the cost of 

automobiles. 

• Growth of the automobile industry changed the economy by stimulating the development of other new 

industries. 

• Development of many new consumer goods led to rapid economic growth during the 1920’s. 

• The number of credit purchases increased (people bought on credit rather than using cash). 

• Emergence of a “consumer culture” because advertising and installment payments encourage buying. 

• Installment Buying- Paying for something a little at a time rather than all at once. 

• Increase in consumer buying and spending. 

• A belief in never-ending prosperity (economic success) helped to promote heavy increases in stock speculation. 

• During the 1920’s prevailing view of government’s role in the economy was that the government should 

interfere as little as possible. 

• President Warren G. Harding- Called for “a return to normalcy” by advocating for reduced international 

involvement and less government regulation of business. Supported isolationism. 

• President Calvin Coolidge- believed the economy functions best if government allows business to operate freely 

(free enterprise system). Small farmers did not fare well during the Coolidge prosperity in the 20’s. 

• Overproduction of Farm Crops- Demand for American farm goods dropped dramatically during the 1920’s 

because European need for imported farm products declined after WWI. Owners of small family farms 

experienced the most severe economic problems during the 20’s. 

• Dust Bowl- Caused by over-farming and severe drought. The Great Plains (flat farming center of the U.S.) 

suffered most directly from the Dust Bowl. Resulted in increased westward migration (people in the Great 

Plains moved west in order to find a better living)

Causes of Great Depression 

• Stock Market Crash of 1929- Considered the start of the Great Depression. Largely caused by speculators that 

purchased shares of stock on margin with borrowed funds (bought stocks on credit). 

• Decline in farm prosperity. 

• Overproduction and the excessive use of credit. 

• Overproduction and underconsumption (U.S. businesses and factories were making more products than the 

U.S. people could buy). Consumer demand was low, while industrial production was high. 

• Uneven distribution of income between the rich and poor (people were either really rich or really poor). 

• Wages lagged behind the cost of living (workers were getting paid too little and could not pay their bills). 

• Rapid, worldwide spread of the Great Depression of the 1930’s was evidence of global financial 

interdependence (economies all over the world are tied to each other and depend on each other. If one falls 

they all fall).

President of the U.S. at the start of the Great Depression. 

• His policies favored big business.

• Trickle Down Economics- Believed that economic growth depends on making increased amounts of capital 

available to big business. 

• Believed that the problems of the Depression could be solved by relying on private enterprise and individual 

initiative to improve economic conditions. 

• Hoover’s response to the Great Depression was criticized because it failed to provide direct relief for the 

neediest people. 

• Refused to provide funds for the unemployed during the Depression based on his belief that Federal relief 

programs would destroy individual initiative (people would not be motivated to work hard if the government 

helped them). 

• Hoover and the Republican party believed that the economy would recover on its own. 

• Hoovervilles- Nickname given to poor communities because of Hoover’s refusal to provide direct federal aid to 

the homeless. Hoover was blamed for the suffering of the poor. 

• Bonus Army- WWI veterans march on Washington in protest, demanding to be paid for their services. 

Demonstrated the growing discontent with Republican efforts to deal with the Great Depression.