What is Transactional Communication?

(list the 2 characteristics)

1.) simultaneity and 2.) mutual influence.

Transactional implies that participants in communication must cooperate and work together to achieve mutual meaning and understanding.

Mutual Influence implies that that the sender-receiver roles occur simultaneously, which means one person is speaking while the other person is giving feedback through their physical gestures. 

"You cannot NOT communicate"

All communication in a social setting is behavior and behavior has no oppposite 

When 2 or more humans are in each other's perceptual awareness, they cannot stop sending nonverbal signals to each other, which they pick up, interpret and respond to. 

Content and Relationship

Principles of Communication 

The content of the message is the subject, idea or topic of the message, basically the what.  

The relationship dimension of the message refers to what the message reveals about how the speaker views his or her relationship to the other participants, basically the how of the message. It is often nonverbal, such as tone, volume, pitch, power, superiority, anger, etc. 

what is the difference between 

hearing VS listening

Hearing is a physiological process that involves the reception of sound waves by the ear. 

Listening involves both hearing and then interpreting those sound waves (and other messages)

A listener who is sensitive to others, nonjudgmental, and concerned concerned about how his/her behavior affects others.

They can become distracted from task by others peoples problems

CMC 

What is Computer Mediated Communication?

Nonverbal Communication

Physical Appearance 

nonverbal messages that cannot be concealed, such as race, sex, physique and mode of dress. 

Sex, body shape and ethnicity particularly affect how group members interact with each other initially. 

EX: endomorphs perceived as lazy

ectomorphs percived as frail/studious

mesomorphs and tall people perceived as leaders 

Cultural factors influence our response to physical appearance as well.

Nonverbal Communication

space and seating

proximics is the study of space and territory between people. 

factors that affect how close people sit to each other depends on culture, gender, age, status, relationship

Closer distance makes people seem more persuasive and credible

Higher status memebrs enhanced their status by violating proximic norms, but lower-status membrs seemed less attractive when doing that 

Nonverbal Communication

eye contact

the use of eye contact is largely determined by one's culture. 

Ex: eye contact is very important for middle class white Americans, lack of eye contact is perceived as dishonest, rudeness

Other cultures may consider lowering the gaze a sign of respect such as native americans and hispanics

Nonverbal Communication

facial expressions

facial expressions indicate feelings and moods without a word being spoken

People who change facial expressions ver little tend to be trusted less than people whose expressive faces signal their feelings more openly

Nonverbal Communication

movements

the study of how we communicate by movement is called kinesics 

We reveal our feelings with bodily movements and gestures. 

Nonverbal Communication
body orientation 

Body Orientation: indicates how open to and accpeting of others a group member feels, how you angle your body

EX: leaning toward others indicates a sense of belonging; leaning away signals a sense of rejection

Nody  

Nonverbal Communication

Body Synchrony

body synchrony: when memebrs are tuned into each other, they tend to imitate each other's posture and movements

* group members are more likely to imitate movements and gestures of members with high status and power*

Nonverbal Communication

vocal cues

vocal cues, AKA paralanguage, are any characteristic of voice and utterance other than the words themselves

Includes pitch, rate, fluency, pronunciation variations, force, tonal quality and pauses 

Nonverbal Communication

backchannel

Nonverbal Communication

dialect

dialect entails regional and social variations in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammer of a language

A speaker with a nonstandard dialect may be perceived as unintelligent, with lower quality and less credibility 

Nonverbal Communication

time orientation

(2 types) 

perception of time is highly culturally dependent 

1. polychronic- cultures that do several things at the same time, Casual about clocks and schedules, frequently late for appts & meetings

2. monochronic- cultures that do one things at a time, view time as tangible, offended if someone is late 

-people who talk somewhat more than average are perceived to be _______

- people who are extremely talkative are perceived to be _________

- who are talk on average amount are perceived to be ___________

-people who talk somewhat more than average are viewed favorably on leadership characteristics 

- who are talk on average amount were the most liked 

- people who are extremely talkative were regarded as rude and selfish 

Nonverbal Communication 

Touch 

The study of the perception of touch is called haptics 

The type of touching people expect depends on the type of relationship they share with others 

a set of relationships among interdependent, interacting components and forces, which attempt to keep a balance with the environment by making constant adjustments 

* a system is self-regulating and self-correcting *

principle of multifinality states that systems starting out at the same place may reach different end points 

*both of these principles show that it is impossible to predict where a sytem wille nd up by knowing only where it starts out *

multiple causation states that whatever happens in a system is not the rsult of a single, simple cause, but it is produced by complex interrelationships among multilpe forces 

(caused by numerous factors)

Variables of a System

Input Variables 

input variables are components from which a small group is formed and that it uses to do its work

EX: the members, the reason's for the group's formation, resources, expertise, money, technology environment

Variables of a System

Variables of Throughput

throughput variables of a group involve how the groupactually transforms into final products-- how the system functions, what it actually does 

EX: roles, rules, norms, procedures the group follows, leadership, and all other parts of the process as the group works toward completing the task

** all generated by communication **

Variables of a System

Output Variables 

output variables of a group are the results or products of the group's throughput processes, including the tangible work accomplished 

Output to the environment EX:

- reports, resolutions, solutions, decisions, etc 

Output within the group EX:

- affection, bond, attitude change, pride, satisfaction, leadership, group culture, etc.

 an open system interacts freely between the environment, with resources, information and so forth, flowing freely between the environment and the group 

EX: a class project that solicits info from friends and other sources outside the the class

a closed system has relatively little interchange between the gorup and its environment

EX: monastery where monks interact with each other but have little contact with outsiders 

A specific type of interchange between a group and its environments is called feedback, which is the environment's response to output it has received from the group. 

It can come in the form of information or tangible resources and helps the system determine whether or not it needs to make adjustments to reach its goals 

- the context, the setting, the larger system in which the group exists

- relative – subsystem, system, supersystem

explain two characteristics of bona fide groups

(hint: boundaries and environment)

a grouping that sees itself as distinct but is also part of a larger grouping

We all belong to several different co-cultures simultaneously

EX: white, middle class, professor, Greek, etc.

worldview encompasses how we perceive the nature of the world around us, our relationship to it, and the purpose of life

- Every culture has a worldview that serves to explain why things are the way they are and where humans fit into the grand scheme of life. 

explain collectivism

(4 points) 

-group is standard of reference

- group is valued over individual

- group values harmony and conformity

- group values slow consensus building

explain individualism 

(4 points)

- individual is standard of reference 

- individual is valued over group

- group values dissent and diversity 

- group values debate and disagreement 

power distance is the degree to which a culture emphasizes status and power differences among members of the culture;

-status differences are minimized in low power-distance cultures 

-status differences are emphasized in high power-distance cultures 

uncertainty avoidance refers to how well people in a particular culture tolerate ambiuity and uncertainty 

- cultures HIGH in uncertainty avoidance prefer clear rules for interaction

- cultures LOW in uncertainty avoidance are comfortable without guidelines 

• Masculinity is the quality of cultures that value assertiveness and dominance
• Femininity is the quality of cultures that value nurturing and caring for others 

• Low-Context Communication is where the primary meaning of a message is carried by the verbal or explicit part of the message
• High-Context Communication is where the primary meaning of a message is conveyed by features of the situation or context instead of the verbal, explicit part of the message 
  (relies less on words and more on situation) 

attitude is a cluster of values and beliefs held by someone about another person, object or concept. 

We cannot measure attitues directly but we infer them from what people say and do

some of the symptoms include

• high CA group members speaking much less that members with low CA
• High CA choose seats where leaders can overlook them
• they make more irrelevant comments
• are less likely to become a group's leader
• more likely to express strong agreement 

• they don't say "I don't like the idea" or "I disagree" but rather, they will be later with a report, "forget" to carry out an assignment, fail to attend meetings or neglect their part of the group work 

cognitive complexity refers to an individual's ability to interpret multiple signals simultaneously.

It is a measure of complex-to-simpolistic thinking-- Do you think in only either/or terms, or can yu perceive shades of grey?

the degree to which a person monitors and controls self-presentation in social situations.

Two elements:

1. The ability to perceive how others perceive them; sensitivity to cues from others.

2. The ability to adapt their behavior to elicit a desired response; flexibility in adjusting one’s behavior.

describe a formal role

(positional role)

a formal role refers to a specific position with a set of expectations for fulfilling that position.

EX: a group's president is expected to call meetings, distribute agenda and coordinate the other members' work; a group's secretary is charge of taking notes 

explain informal role

(behavioral role)

an informal role refers to a unique role created as a result of a member's behavior. Informal roles also reflect the traits, personality characteristics, habits and preferences of the members in a particular group

EX: the jokester in the group

task roles contribute primarily to accomplishing the goals of a group

EX: proposing goals and plans of action, offering information, reviewing what has been said previously, organizing the group's work

maintenance roles

primary tension is tension and discomfort in members that stems from interpersonal primary sources, including the social unease that occurs when members of a new group first meet or during competition for power among members. 

EX: politeness, boredom, yawning, sighning, formality

Managing group tension:

- members can take time to get aquainted w/ each other

- they can talk about their backgrounds, interests, hobbies

secondary tension is work-related tension found in differences of opinion among members as they seek to accomplish their task. It is inevitable becasue members perceive problems differently and disagree about goals.

EX: opinion clashes, loud voices, interruptions, leaving the room, name calling, talking aggressively 

Managing: facing up to secondary tensions is the best way to release them. Try to find integrative ways to manage it because that will lead to cohesiveness. And lastly, learn to welcome this tension because it will force groups to look more carefully task-related issues and help them develop a better outcome. 

what is status hierarchy

List and explain the 4 types of Status

Status – the relative importance, prestige, and power of a member in a small group.

1. High status –

attention, agreement, advice & opinion, power & privileges, talk more, expected to work harder

2. Low status –

send more positive messages to HS members, get interrupted more, get ignored more, talk to individuals more than the group

3. Ascribed status

- status due to characteristics external to the group

Ex:

wealth, occupation, fame, position, edu.

4. Earned status

- status earned by a member’s contributions to the group.

Ex:

working hard; provided needed expertise; communicating well

didn't find exact answer for this...

i remember in class though she talked about how we can hide behind the computer, we can say whatever we want without any consequences, so to say

rules: formalised guidelines for behavior that may be written down and taken into the group as an input variable

Norm: an informal rule, seldom written down, instead it is an idea in the minds of the members of a group about what they ought to do or what they're expected to do 

general norms direct the behavior of the group as a whole, whereas role-specific norms concern individual members with particular roles, such as the leader. 

EX: Gen. Norm- members should sit in the same position at each meeting

Role-spec. Norm- the secretary should distribute minutes from previous meeting

group climate refers to a group's emotional and relationsal atmosphere.

How well do members work together? Do they seem to like each other? Are members' identity and relational needs being met? Is the atmophere relaxed or tense?

explain coheviness

- social and task aspects

cohesiveness refers to the common bonds and sentiments that hold a group together; the degree of attractions members feel for the group; unity

social: highly cohesive groups display more characteristics of primary groups that less cohesive groups, have higher level of interaction. Members express more positive feelings for each other 

high cohesiveness--> increased ability to cope effectively with unusual problems

task: cohesive groups are more productive ONLY when the members have both high acceptance of organzation goals implicit in the group's task AND a strong drive to complete the task. 

supportive climate: each member is valued and appreciated. members feel that they are supported

Defensive climate: members attack and belittle each other. Members feel that they have to defend themselves

group culture is the pattern of values, beliefs, norms and behaviors that are shared by group members and that shape a group's individual "personality"

many factors weave together to create a group's culture including the content and pattern of interaction, the members' roles and their interrelationships 

a group's culture is always dynamic. 

As a system, a group continyually evolves by adapting to its changing circumstances and environement. Communication among members is the means by which members create and sustain their group culture 

structuration is the idea that any social system's rules, operating procedures and resources emerge out of the verbal and nonverbal communication between members.

The concept that a group creates and continuously recreates itself through members' communicative behaviors; the group's communication both establishs and limits how the group develops

1. The behavior of group members is constrained by

- the general rules of the society in which they live,

- the structure of the particular group, and

- the behavior of the other group members.

2. People can choose whether to following the rules of the group or not.

- There is no law that forces conformity.

3. Group creation is a process.

- It is a continuous process.

- It is always in a state of becoming.

- A group creates itself initially and also continuously recreates itself.

One of the most powerful ways in which group culture is created is through fantasy. 

Fantasy: the creatove & imaginative shared interpretations of events that fulfill members' psychological or rhetorical need to make sense of their experiences, does not mean fictious or unreal. 

**basically it means that sometimes when groups are meeting, rather than discussing group related agenda, the members may be telling stories and relating past events at the unconscious level. This means group's rarely set out consciously to establish the group's culture, instead they just talk.

when a group member says something not directly related to the present task of the group, that member has introduced a fantasy. Sometimes other group membres pick up on that fantasy and elaborate on it. Several other members join the fantasy by adding their pieces to the story, in a kind of group storytelling

----> fantasy chain

fantasies are about something; the content of the fantasy is called the fantasy theme

manifest theme: the obvious theme

latent theme: below-the-surface theme

when examined reveals the culture, values and norms of the group.

the theory acknowledges that humans are storytelling creatures who create and share meaning through talk. 

Convergence refers to the fact that during interaction, the private symbolic worlds of individuals often overlap , or converge. When that occurs, the symblic personal communciation of 2 or more individuals constructs a shared reality that bonds them. 

defined: symbolic convergence theory accounts for the creation and maintenance of a group consciousness through shared motives, common emotional activity and consensual meanings for events. 

Phases of Group Socialization 

antecedent phase

Phases of Group Socialization

anticipatory phase

the phase in which membres' expectations of each other and the group set the stage for what will occur during 

The more the expectations differ from the actual experience, the more likely members will experience anxiety and perhaps even anger

Phases of Group Socialization

encounter phase

the phase in which member expectations meet the realities and members begin to adjust to each other in actuality 

During this time the individual & group create or adjust the group's norms, culture, climate and status hierarchy

Phases of Group Socialization

assimilation phase

the phase in which members are fully integrated into the group and its structures 

New members are comfrotable with the group culture and show an active interest in both the group's tasks and relationships

Phases of Group Socialization

exit phase

Defined: influence exerted through communication that helps a group achieve its goals.

Characteristics

1. Leadership is earned

2. Leadership is behavior!

3. Leadership should be distributed- a shared property of the group that's created through group communication

what is power?

(sources of influence) 

the ability to influence others stems from power that is derived from a particular source, or base. 

Leaders and followers transact to create a relationship based on perceived power.

Power:

reward

leaders can reward followers by giving them both tangible and intangible items such as special attention, acknowledgment, compliments, personal favors, special titles, money and material goods 

EX: a boss found that telling members they were high performers (whether they were or not) and giving them high-status jobs actually increased their satisfaction, performance and commitment 

Power:

punishment

leaders can also punish by withholding these same items mentioned in the previous card. Coercion is a special form of punishment power that uses threats or force to "influence" others

--> this can likely breed resentment and sabotage the group

EX: a boss may come down hard on her news report team, but she lets them leave early and gives them free tickets to games 

Power:

legitimate power

legitimate power stems from a special position or role acknowledged by the followers. Legitimate poewr includes only influence that is accepted as appropriate by followers. 

EX: a committee chair does not have the right to tell members how to dress or wear their hair, but a supervisor may have that power

Power:

referent power

referent poer is based on attraction or identification with another person. The more leaders are admired and respected, the more members copy their behavior and thus the greater their power to influence the group

EX: when the referent leader of a group of friends suggests they join a club

Power:

expert power

expert power comes from what others believe a member knows or can do. The person w/ expert power is influential because he or she is perceived as having knowledge or skills vital to the group.

Approaches to Leadership:

Traits Approach

Approaches to Leadership:

Styles Approaches 

(4 types)

style approaches focus on the pattern of behaviors a leader exhibits in a group.

1. democratic leader- encourages memebrs to participate in group decisions, including policy-making decisions. 
2. laissez-faire leader- takes almost no initiative for structuring a group, but they may respond to inquiries from members 
3. autocratic leaders- tightly control their groups,making assingments, directing all verbal interaction, and giving orders
4. Theory X vs Theory Y- Theory X assumes that people don't like to work and must therefore be compelled by a strong controlling leader (boss) who supervises them closely. Theory Y assumes that people work as naturally as they play and are creative problem solvers who like to take charge of their own work

Approaches to Leadership:

Functions Approach

this approach is grounded in two assumption

1.) for any group to reach its goal, both task and social have to be performed

2.) the performance of these task and social fucntions is generally the responsibility of all group members 

Approaches to Leadership:

Contingency Approaches

Approaches to Leadership:

Contigency Approaches 

(Conti.)

Hersey & Blanchard's Situational Model 

Approaches to Leadership:

Contigency Approach 

(conti.)

Barge & Hirokawa's Communication Competencies Approach

9 characteristics:

1. Communicate actively, clearly, and concisely.

2. Communicate a good grasp of the group’s task.

3. Inspire members’ confidence in themselves.

4. Skillfully mediate information and ideas supplied by members.

5. Express their ideas/opinions provisionally.

6. Are not self-centered.

7. Create a collaborative climate by respecting and supporting others.

8. Promote diversity.

9. Share rewards and credit with the group. Don’t take full credit.

Approaches to Leadership:

transformational leadership

(list 4 characteristics)

transformational leaders do not use rewards or even punishment to sustain their influence; instead they use creative and dramatic messages to craft a powerful isnpirational vision that motivates members to exceed expectations

4 characteristics:

1. Give individual attention to group members.

2. Charismatic & inspirational

3. Combine both task and socioemotional skills

4. Empowerment

Approaches to Leadership:

distributed leadership

the concept that group leadership is the responsibility of the group as a whole; assumes that all members can and should provide needed leadership services to the group 

**- Study shows that this model generated greater group productivity.**

1. conflict can produce better understanding of both issues and people
2. conflict can increase member motivation-- when a group member pariticipates in a conflict, they are actively involved and interested, hence learning more about the issue
3. conflict can produce better decisions-- through conflict, you learn why others diasgree, and find flaws in reasoning, holes in arguments that you were previously ignored, preventing the group from more mistakes 
4. conflict can produce greater cohesiveness among group members-- when a group experiences & resolves conflict successfully, the members learn that the ties holding the group together are strong enough to withstand disagreement. 

what are the 3 negative effects of 

conflict

1. conflict can cause bad feelings among group members
2. conflict can lower group cohesiveness (especially if it involves personal attcks or carried on for too long)
3. conflict can split a group apart

a deviate is a member who is viewed by the other members as substantially different in some important way from the others. 

two common types:

1.) members who do not participate

2.) members who express compatible views about issues in the group

aka extrinsic conflict, originates from interpersonal power clashes, likes and dislikes, unrelated to the group's task

*generally detrimental to the functioning of the group.*

a type of substative conflict over the procedures a group should follow in working toward its goals. 

Disagreement takes place over the how of group interaction 

Conflict Mangement:

explain the distributive approach and the integrative approach 

distributive approach: aka win-lose attitude, assumes that what one person gains is at another's expense, thus, there can only be one winning side, the others are loser. 

integrative approach: assumes that there is some way to manage the conflict so that all parties can be integrated into a solution in which all involved receive what is most important to them 

Conflict Management Styles and Tactics

Avoidance 

Conflict Management Styles and Tactics

accommodation

accommodation is also called appeasement and is a highly cooperative but passive approach that occurs when you give in to someone else

It may occur when the issue is not important to you, or when the relationship is more important to you than the outcome 

Conflict Management Styles and Tactics

competition

Conflict Management Styles and Tactics

collaboration

Conflict Management Styles and Tactics

compromise