follows gradient: high concentration - low concentration

Endodermis regulates entry into vascular tissue

Upward movement only

(xylem tissue)

Upward and downward movement

(phloem tissue)

Water vapor lost from plant

(mainly in leaves)

Arabidopsis

(distance of movement)

Redwoods

(distance of movement)

Conduction

(rate of water movement)

Diffusion

(rate of water movement)

Cyclosis

(rate of water movement)

Translocation

(rate of water movement)

What are the male reproductive structures located in Whorl 3?

(angiosperms)

What are the female reproductive structures located in whorl 4?

(angiosperms)

Dead at maturity

Bordered pits

In xylem

Dead at maturity

Perforation plate

Simple pits

In xylem

Ability to stick to another substance

(aka Capillary action)

Several main roots attached at shoot/root junction, thus a single main root cannot be identified

Greater surface area than tap root

Better at holding soil in place (prevent erosion)

More efficient absorption of minerals which mainly reside in upper soil layers

protoderm

ground meristem

procambium

Protects apical meristem

gravitropism

Sloughed off & replaced as root pushes through soil

Forms outer layer of young root

Gives rise to epidermis in mature root

Center of young root

Gives rise to promary tissues

Primary xylem

Primary phloem

Located between protoderm & procambium

Primary tissues

parenchyma

collenchyma

sclerenchyma

Zones of Growth

(root cap then up)

Zone of cell division

" " elongation

" " differentiation

Develops from ground meristems

Casparian strip

Regulates later movement of water & polar (hydrophilic) compounds

Intercellular space filled with suberin (hydrophobic compound)

Water & polar compounds must move biotically through epidermis cell

Once past endodermis, water & minerals transported vertically by xylem

1 cell thick under endodermis

polypoid cells (nuclei have >2 sets of chromosomes)

Function: forms lateral roots

Initiated in pericycle

Grows through cortex

Bursts through epidermis

Same form as primary root

Occupies center of root

Conducts water and minerals vertically

primary meristem

produces xylem to inside

produces phloem to outside

occupies concave regions formed by xylem in young roots

transports food

Root modification:

Aerial Roots

Attachment, support

adventitious root

Root modification:

Prop roots

Support,Anchorage

adventitious root

Root modification:

Contractile roots

Hold plant at soil level

pull bulb below soil level

keep rhizome at proper depth

Roots penetrate and become fully anchored

Upper cortical cells contract

-Increases radius

-Decreases height

Vascular tissues buckles and becomes undulate, but still able to conduct

Root modification:

Pneumatophores

(knees)

Root modification:

Nodules

Root symbioses:

Nodules

N2 fixation

infects through root hair

infection thread grows to pericycle

Anaerobic process

-nitrogenase enzyme

-Increased activity than in soil

Root Symbioses:

Mycorrhizae

Carbon source

Fungi

-water and mineral uptake

Vascular cambium

-Fasicular cambium

-Interfasicular cambium

cork cambium

cork

phelloderm

fasicular Cambium (procambium) + Interfasicular cambium (Ray parenchyma)=vascular cambium=secondary phloem+secondary phloem

cortex parenchyma=cork cambium=cork+phelloderm

Outermost layer

Cell walls contain suberin (wax)

Dead when functional

Function:

protection

water-proofing

insulation

Located beneath cork

Replaced every year

Function:

Produces cork cells to outside

Produces phelloderm cells to inside

Formed by cork cambium

Layer 1 cell thick

Unknown function

Dedifferentiates to form cork cambium

crushed as time passes

cortex region

Formed by procambium during first few months of growth

As tree agesm becomes crushed and sloughed with bark

Function:

Transports food when first formed

Formed by vascular cambiu,

No growth rings visible

As tree trunk ages, becomes crushed and sloughed with bark

Function:

transports food when first formed

formed from procambium and parenchyma ray cells

eternally juvenille tissue that continously divides

Function:

produces phloam cells to outside

produces xylem cells to inside

formed by vascular cambium during first 3 months of growth

innermost layer of xylem

function:

transports food when first formed

formed by vascular cambium

growth rings present

layers of cells within each year's growth (ring)

-large cells = spring wood

-small cells = sumemr wood

growth rings retained for life of tree

function:

conduct water and minerals

(limited to most recent growth, 1-3 years)

extend laterally across stem from pith region to outer edge of phloem

arranged like spokes on a wheel

function:

lateral transport

Primary tissue

located at center of tree trunk

after 5-10 years, crushed due to lateral expansion of trunk and no longer recognizable as parenchyma

as tree ages, resins collect and contribute to formation of heart wood

Located at center of tree trunk

reddish brown color

Resins accumulate

-extra hard

-natural insecticide

yellowish color

no or very little resins

cells filled with water, but only youngest layers conduct water

softer wood

young trees have mostly sap wood

Typically formed in spring

water readily available

form large vessel elements

Typically formed in summer

water less readily available

form smaller vessel elements

Includes all parts of trunk inside vascular cambium

Has growth rings

retained for life of tree

harvested for lumber

youngest wood layers conduct water and minerals

Includes all parts of trunk outside of vascular cambium

Repeatedly crushed as sloughed off as tree ages

No growth rings

Functions to protect tree trunk

Phloem translocates food

Eruptions in bark

Layers of cork raised exposing cortex parenchyma to external atmosphere

functions in gas exchange

some water vapor lost

non-photosynthetic cells require O2 for aerobic respiration which produces CO2

Cross section or cut parallel to earth's surface

Rays appear as spokes on wheel

growth rings form concentric circles

Cut used to fell trees

Microscopic level:

Vesel elements and tracheids appear as circles

Rays appear as spokes on wheel

spring and summer wood of growth ring clearly visible

Longitudinal section or cut perpendicular to earth's surface

Cut passes through center of trunk or trunk radius

Rays appear as horizontal streaks

Growth rings appear as longitudinal lines

More expensive cut of lumber

Microscopic level:

Longitudinal axis of vessel elements and trachieds visible; appear as long cells

Rays appear as low, brick walls

Growth rings difficult to discern 

Longitudinal section or cut perpendicular to earth's surface

Any longitudinal cut not through center of tree trunk

Rays appear as short, perpendicular flecks or streaks

Growth rings form ellipses or pattern of "normal curve"

Less expensive cut of lumber

Microscopic level:

Longitudinal axis of vessel elements and trachieds visible; appear as long cells

Rays appear as short, vertical rows of small, round cells

Growth rings difficult to discern

Vegetative Meristem

(VM)

Produces new stems & leaves

(vegetative organs)

Infloresence Meristem

(IM)

Control point for flowering

Rapid elongation of stem

Produces floral meristems (all plants) & leaves (some plants)

Floral meristem

(FM)

Stamen

(made of)

anther

filament

Site of pollen formation & release

Divided into 4 parts

Pollen develops in each quadrant

Each quadrant deshisces (splits open) to release pollen

Pistil

(segments)

Pistil = gynoecium

formed from fused carpels

Stigma

style

ovary

Not same as egg

Grown inside ovary

Contains 8 nuclei

-2 synergid (nurse) nuclei located at front of ovule

-egg nucleus located at front of ovule

-2 polar nuclei located at center of ovule

-3 antipodal nuclei located at back of ovule

Integuments:

Grow to enclose ovule

develop into seed coat (teste)

Attaches ovule to ovary wall

Contains vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)

Ovule recieves water, minerals, and food from other regions of plant

Connects ovule to placenta

Leaves hilum scar on bean seed

Flower parts in multiples of 3

Ex. Lilies

3 sepals

3 petals

3 stamens

3 carpels

Flower parts may be fused in some flowers

Look for seams

Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5

ex. 4/5 sepals

4/5 petals

4/5 staments

4/5 carpels

Flower parts may be fused in some flowers

Look for seams

Complete: All 4 whorls present

Incomplete: One or more whorls absent

Perfect flowers: Both sex whorls present

Androecium (stamens)

Gynoceium (pistil)

Imperfect flowers: One sex whorl present

Staminate flower (male)

-pistils absent

-stamens present

Pistillate flower (female)

-pistils present

-stamens abesent

Regular (Actinomorphic): radial pattern

Irregular (Zygomorphic): bilateral symmetry

Superior: Ovary attached to flower at point above the other 3 whorls

Inferior: Ovary attached to flower at point below the other 3 whorls

Superior ovary

No floral cup around stigma (stigma above anther)

Promotes outcrossing

Superior ovaryFloral cup around stigma (stigma below anther)

Promotes inbreeding

Inferior ovary

Promotes outcrossing

2 types of flowers attached to infloresence

Ray flowers

-"Petal" appearance

-attract pollinators

Disk flowers

-Center florets

-Reproduction

Haplont

(Life cycle in plant groups)

Haplonic life cycle

One zygote diploid

Alternation of generations

(Life cycles of plant groups)

Haplo-diplonic life cycle

Two adult forms during life cycle

Diplont

(Life cycles in plant groups)

Diplonic life cycle

Syngamy occurs immediately after meiosis

Prophase

Nuclear envelope dissolves, chromosomes condense

Metaphase

Mitotic spindle forms & attaches to chromosomes

Anaphase

Chromatids pulled apart

Telophase

Phragmoplast forms

Cytokinesis

Cell plate formation

Division into two cells

Undergoes meiosis

Diploid cell to 4 haploid neclei

Each haploid cell that develops into pollen grain

resistant cell wall (exine)

Sporollenin in cell wall

-fatty substance

-prevents dessication of pollen grain

Vegetative cell

Generative cell

Undergoes mitosis to form 2 sperm nuclei

1 fuses with egg to form zygote

1 fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm

Ovary contains ovules

Ovules contain eggs

Megaspore mother cell

-meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells

-three haploid cells die

eight nuclei cells

-1 egg

-2 synergids

-2 polar nuclei

-3 antipodal nuclei

Exocarp = outer layer

Mesocarp = middle layer

endoderm = inner layer

pericarp may be a single layer

(fused layers)

Simple fruits - form from 1 flower and 1 pistil

-most common fruit type

Aggregate fruits - Form from 1 flower (ovary) with multiple pistils

Multiple fruits - form from multiple flowers (ovaries)

Fruits are soft and fleshy

Forms from 1 flower with 1 to several carpels fused to form 1 ovary

Exocarp: skin-like

Mesocarp: soft and fleshy

Endocarp: soft and fleshy

Special class of berry

Exocarp: leathery rind containg oil packets

Mesocarp: soft and fleshy

Endocarp: soft and fleshy

Special class of berry

Exocarp: hard rind

Mesocarp: soft, fleshy, and watery

Endocarp: soft, fleshy, and watery

Exocarp: skin-like

Mesocarp: soft and fleshy

ENdocarp: hard, stone-like, and tightly bound to seed

Exocarp: skin-like

Mesocarp: soft and fleshy

Endocarp: papery, star-shaped

Dehiscent

Indehiscent

formed from single carpel that splits down 1 side along seam

(1 line of dehiscence)

Formed from single carpel that splits down 2 sides along seams

(2 lines of dehiscence)

Formed from 2 fused carpels

Fruit splits open on 2 sides and seeds remain attached to central region

Carpels divided by septum that contains seeds

Fruit a narrow and long

Formed from 2 fused carpels

Fruit splits open on 2 sides and seeds remain attached to central region

Carpels divided by septum that contains seeds (pinched appearance)

Fruit broad and short

2 or more fused carpels that split open in sveral ways

Split along length of carpel (3 or more seams)

Cap on 1 end pops off

Form rows of pres through which seeds shake out

Most common

Conains 1 seed

Seed attached to pericarp at 1 point

Pericarp with no outgroeths (no wings)

Contains 1 seed

Seed attached to pericarp at 1 point

Pericarp not hard like a bone

Pericarp with winged outgrowths

aka caryopsis

Entire outer seed coat is fused to fruit wall (pericarp)

Contains 1 seed

Fruit wall is stony (hard like bone)

Derived from multiple carpels in compound ovary

Form from single flower with multiple pistils

Each pistil develops into fruitlet

All fruitlets mature on a single receptacle

Seedlessfruit

fertilization does not occur

Plant hormones induced without seed and cause fruit formation

Air: 20-30%

Water: 20-30%

Mineral: 45%

Organic Matter: 5%

Percolation of water downward

Carries minerals, organics, particles, etc.

Minerals removed from upper lays of soil

Minerals may get into aquifers

Horizon A = leached layer

-rich in organicsm dark in color

Horizon B = accumulation layer

-thick soil horizon, sometimes reddish-brown due to oxidied iron, not so rich in nutrients as Horizon A

Horizon C = parent material

Does not normally mix with horizons A and B 

Sedimentary rock contributes ~50% nitrogen needed by plants

Igneous rock contributes little nitrogen to plants

Gravitational water

Capillary water

Hygroscopic water

Imbibed water

found in very large soil pores or spaces

usually quickly last as runoff

available to plant for brief time

Lost from soil horizon due to gravity

fills smaller pores or spaces in soil

usually retained for long periods

-depends on soil quality

very available to plant for uptake for longest time

most available to plant

water held in micropores

water not available to plant

held very strongly

Exists as surface film on soil particles

Not very available to plant

held strongly in place

Tillage

-loosen soil

-create various pore sizes

-improves water retention

soil additives

-compost and peat improve water retention capacity

-stick to soil components to form crumbs or crumble

-promotes variation in pore size and number

Yellowing of leaf

whole leaf yellow = nitrogen deficiency

interveinal chlorosis

-iron deficiency

-magnanese deficiency

Primary = taller

secondary = thicker

sand

silt

clay

loam

clay loam

sandy loam

silty loam

most locations: sandy loams

beach: pure sand

Raising alkalinity

adjusting soil pH

increasing pH

addition of lime and dolomite

Raising acidity

adjusting soil pH

decreasing pH

ammonium sulfate application

Stunted growth

Spindly growth

pigment accumulation

-anthocyanins

chlorosis

necrosis

derive nutrition from inorganic substances in earth's crust

convert inorganic substances to organic compounds

organic substances converted to other organics compounds

green plants

chemotrophic bacteria

photosynthetic bacteria

heterotrophs

derive nutrients from other living organic compounds

organic substances converted to other organic compounds

Macroelements=major elements

-required in relatively large quantity

-obtained from inorganic compounds

Microelements=trace elements

-required in relatively small quality

-may be toxic at high concentrations

-obtained from inorganic compounds

cation=molecule with positive charge

-lost electrons to counter anions

anion=molecule with negative charge

-gained electrons from counter cations

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel each other

Solution form

-dissolved salt dissociates into ions

-very available for plant uptake

Exchangeable form

-Ion weakly associated with soil particle having the opposite charge

-Avaible for plant uptake after ion of like charge substituted or exchanged for first ion

fixed forms

-element tightly bounf in crystalline form

-said to be mineralized or still in form of parent bedrock

-not available for plant uptake

plants grown in liquid culture

-medium aerated

-sparging (bubbling with air)

-thin-film of slow moving solution

medium precisely defined

Plants grown in air

-roots misted with nutrient solution

-or roots intermittantly dunked in solution and resuspended in air

sand

-little ion binding capacity

-little water holding capacity

vermiculite

-mined mineral heated to expand particles

-used in insulation,dry wall, hydroponics

perlite

-mined mineral heated to expand particles

-used in plasters, hydroponics

used to quantify chemical potential of water in plants, soils, and air

chemical potential corresponds to water concentration for diffusion gradients

aka osmotic potential

Number of solutes dissolved in water

Measured as negative numbers

lower the number, more solutes

aka turgor pressure

due to water accumulation in cell pushing plasmamembrane against cell wall

usually positive number

expansion of epidermis cells

thin cell walls promote rapid uptake

increases surface area available for uptake

Absorbed water and minerals transported laterally

favors additional uptake from soil solution

follows concentration gradient

-root hair=high concentration

-active transport

xylem=low concentration

-removal to other regions

Endodermis

-regulates which ions reach xylem

ion in soluble form may be immediately absorbed

ions in exchangeable form are weakly associated with charged soil particles

-not immediately available for uptake

ions in exchangeable form become soluble ion

-may be absorbed

clay particles have net negative charge

-negative charges > positive charges

more cation retained

some soil particles have net poistive charge

-much less abundant than clay

cations=positive charge

anions=negative charge

Water lost as vapor from plant

lenticels=lenticular transpiration

cuticle=cuticular

stomates=stomatal transpiration

-stomatal transpiration accounts for greatest water loss

Atmospheric humidity

temperature

wind

soil water availability

light

No breeze-water vapor surrounding leaf increases, decreasing gradient

light breeze-carries away water vapor thus assisting in maintaining a steep gradient

heavy breeze-causes stomates to close, reducing water loss

loss of water from the plant as liquid

water droplets exuded from leaf

-often from specialized cells known as hydathodes

occurs after rain

for conduction to continue, water must be lost from the plant

ATPase=H+-Pump

Transports H+ across plasma membrane

Requires 1 ATP per H+

ATPase mechanism:

protein has active site for H+

When H+ fills active site and ATP is available, protein reotates like revolving door to expel H+ from cell

Regulation protein

ATPase

Photoreceptor that signals many events in response to light

Guard cells respond to blue light:

water moves in by osmosis

Light activated phytochrome acts on a protein associated with the H+-pump in plasma membrane of guard cell

H+-pump expels H+ from cytoplasm

Regulatory protein inhibits H+-pump activity when bound

Activated phytochrome alters conformation of protein so that it cannot bind to H+-pump

-pump remains active

drought:

water deficit in plant decreases turgor pressure

stomata close even in light

Abscisic Acid (ABA):

prevents interaction between phytochrome and ATPase regulatory protein

ATPase inactivated even in light

Ability of water molecules to stick to each other

formation of hydrogen bons (H-bonds)

Solvation

(water)

ability to adhere to solutes

-cation

-anions

dissolve solutes

Adhesion

(water)

Ability to stick to another substance like cell walls of tracheids and vessel elements

aka capillary action