Do Not use O2 and starts/end w/glycolysis

a) alcohol fermentation: produces 2 ATP, CO2 and ethanol, yeast (fungi) used

b) lactate fermentation: produces 2 ATP, lactate/lactic acid, lacubacillus breaks down glucose in milk

uses O2 in cellular respiration

C6+H12+O6+6O2=>6CO2+6H2O+36ATP

Step 1: glycolysis

Step 2: Kreb's Cycle

Step 3: Electron Transport Chain

IN=                                 OUT=

32 ADP                          32 ATP

6 O2                               6H2O

10 NADH                        10 NAD+

2 FAFH2                         2 FAD

-contains plasma and blood cells

- 1-1.5 gallons in body

-never leaves vessles

watery fluid around cells that moves in/out of blood vessels (3 gallons)

-drains into the lymphatic system

-pressure differences between inside and outside of blood vessles drives fluid in and out

mixture of blood and intersticial fluid

-found in invertibrates

hemplymph not in vessels and do not have hearts

-can't control blood flow

-works only for small animals

-body movements improves circulation (crawling)

blood never leaves system

-blood travels faster in vessels

-control blood flow by varied diameter of vessles

-allows higher activity and metabolic rate

blood clotting protien

-Hemophilia=too little produced leads to inability to clot

protiens in the blood that carry gases

-Hemogloben in humans

-most common blood dissorder=anemia

(blood carries too little O2 from lack of Fe)

-elastic walls

-muscles that control diameter

-valves to prevent backflow

-vessles get smaller

-blood pressure increases

-caused by antihystamines, amphetamines, cocaine, visine, and cold temperature

-vessels get bigger

-blood pressure decreased

-hot temperatures, alcohol, lactic acid

plaque removal

-laser angioplasty: blasts/melts away plaque

-Balloon angioplasty: condenses plaque to walls

-stent: hold plack back like a dam (perm)

disturbance of blood supply to/in the brain

-caused by clot or aneurysm

chronic high blood pressure

-causes heart attacks, strokes and aneurysms

-increased blood presure from genetics, lack of sleep, too much salt or stress

chronic low blood pressure

-reduction in volume of blood available for supply

-result of major trama (car accident/surgery)

heart attack with irreversible damage to heart

-caused by lack of O2

exchange of gases btwn. an organism and environment

-breathing in O2 out CO2

-must pass through liquid to get to cells

-<surface area for gas exchange=more gas can diffuse

-diffusion depends on gas concentation and pressure

-O2 Diffuses 8000x faster in air than water

Cold fresh water hold the most dissolved O2 (salt least)

air holds 20x more O2 than water

-O2 is non-polar, water is polar (don't want to mix)

-hemoglobin and pressure forces gas into water

outfoldings on body suspended in water for gas exchange.  Surface area<surface area of rest of body.

(If water was super oxygenated lung work!)

Insect Respiration:

Spiracles

portholes on the outside of an insect's body

-connect to tracheal system that run throuout body

-O2 and CO2 is not transported b/c trac system touches every part of organism

air pushes into lungs and then is sucked out

-Metamorphis: gradual change from gills->lungs

-pulmocutaneous Respiration: through skin (frogs not toads)

Most efficient type of respiration

-lungs have sacks attached to them

-lung do not inflate/deflate only sacks

-creates constant flow of gas without mixing old/new

-reduces weight

-creates oneway air flow

air is sucked in and then pushed out

-tidal ventilation using diaphram (inneficient)

-when air sucked in, D goes down

-pushed out D goes up

a) fast twitch- white fiber, explosive speed, no endurance, few mitochondria, anerobic resp, lactic acid builds(rabit)

b) slowtwitch- red fiber, high endurance, slower speed, many mitochondria, aerobic respiration (wolf)

1- Phosphagen System: phosphate for ATP formation stored in molecules of creative phosphate (lasts 10sec)

2- Glycolytic System: use glycolysis and lactate formation (lasts 1-2 minutes)

3-aerobic respiration: slowest way to make ATP but last the longest

rigid body support w/muscles attached

-hydrostatic: fluid/air held under pressure in closed body compartment

-exoskeleton: hard skeleton on outside of body (made of chitin protien)

infant=300, adult=200-210

fuse together as you get older up to puberty

Ribs: men and women=12 pairs

1-movement

2-protection of organs

3-store calcium and phosphrous

4-produce red/white blood cells in bone marrow

Osteoclasts: secreate acid constantly breaking down bone

Osteoblasts: constantly rebuild bones

up to 24 years= bone mass increases by blast<clasts

osteoperosis clast<blasts

cartilage shock absorbers between bones wear away

-common in knees, back, hips and fingers

unnatural curvature of the spine side to side or front to back causing pain and uneven arms anf breasts

-controlled by genetics?

-we evolve with them so immune system can kill most

-they kill eachother by competeing for life

-prudent parasite: should not kill host otherwise you destroy potential to spread

1-Binary Fission: asexual copy chromosomes and divide creating a clone

2-conjugation: direct exchange of DNA through conjugation tube

3- Transformation: uptake DNA from environment

4- Transduction: transfer DNA using Viruses

5- endospores: bacterial spore that survive extreme conditions like heat

symbiosis btwn. bacteria and plant roots that help get nitrogen out of the soil

-Nitrogen fixation: bacteria replenishes nutrients to soil when you leave the soil alone and do not plant for a while (fallow period)

-1000 to 10000x smaller than bacterium

-only DNA/RNA in protective coat not cell

-cannot reproduce on its own

-circle of RNA w no protien coat or coding genes

-pathogens of plants and crops

-resemble Introns

-least understood with no cure

- misfolded protien that causes others to fold

-accumulates in brain tissue

-resiliant to heat, radiaition, and disinfectants

single celled eukaryotes placed in their own kingdom

single celled protists that cause algae blooms (red tide)

-red tide: population explotion of dinof. that release toxins

colonial protists not plants

-Golden: diatoms that give off lots of O2

-Brown: important to marine ecosys. (kelp/seaweed)

-Red: source of agar used in jelly and cosmetics

decomposers of ecosystem

Hyphae: chain of connected cells (how fungi grow)

Mycelium: interwoven mat of hyphae that form the stucture of the fungi

Nutrient Absorbtion in Fungi

use enzymes that digest food outside the body

-Saprobic fungi: consume dead organisms

Parasitic Fungi: feed on living organisms

Mold: rapidly growing asexual reproduction

Yeast: reproduce through budding in damp places

Lichen: symbiotic relation with fungus and cyanobac.(green algae)

Mycorrhizae: plant roots and fungi that helps plants absorb nutrients (phosphorous) from soil

any substance that stimulate the imune system

-protien bumps on bacterium/viruses

where intersticial fluid is filtered

-swollen glands = sign of infection

1-skin/exoskeleton: prevents pathogens from entering body (like a shield)

2- tears, sweat, saliva (contain lysozyme that kills bac.)

3- mucus (washes away pathogens)

4- stomache acid HCL kills bac. in stomache

1-Natural killer cells: cells inside body that attack bacteria/viruses and cancer (aka white boold cells)

-perforins poke holes in bacterium cell wall

2- Macrophages: white blood cells that eat bacteria whole

Inflamation: swelling, redness, and heat

-histamines: produced by Mast cells causing capillaries to dialate and become leaky

-prostaglandins: hormon produced by afftected area

fever: immune system works better at 100 degrees

inflamation: prevents movement of injured site and traps pathogens in place

Tcells: WBC that controls immune system

-tells BCells when to divide

BCells: WBC that make antibodies that attach to antigens

-each bcell makes one kind of antibody that attaches to one specific kind of antigen

Plasma Cells: produce millions of antibodies

Memory cells: plasma cells that remain dormant only until a familiar antigen is found (reson you don't get chicken pox twice)

attack cells of the  immune system

-HIV/AIDS: attack and destroy TCells=cant makes plasma cells to produce antibodies and no memory cells.  Without any of these you cannot fight any antigen

immune system attacks itself or other parts of your body

-multiple sclerosis (destroy nerve cell coverings)

-Rhumetoid Arthritis (attacks tissue in joints)

dead pathogens are injected into the body

-do not cause illnes but memory cells respond and make note of the pathogens inorder to fight infection in the future

short term immunity using ready made antibodies produced outside the body

1-snake bite antivenum: inject venom into rabbits, rabits produce antibodies, harvest those antibodies, inject into bitten human

2-Maternal Antibodies-transfer to baby through placenta and breastfeeding

3-gamma globulin: dose of antibodies for people traveling outside their normal geographic zone to one with disease potential

reaction: when too many antibodies are produced stimulating hystamines that lower blood pressure

shock: reaction all over body=fatal drop in BP

-take epinephrine (adrenaline) in form of Epi-pen

secreate hormones into ducts that lead out the body

(mamory, sweat, silk)

secreat hormones into the body using intersticial fluid

(pituitary and hypothalamus)

chemical produced by cells that control the action of others

-target cells: able to respond to hormone and react w/specific receptors

-receptors: protiens on target cells that suck up hormone

master gland that produces 8 regulating hormones

acts on kidneys to hold water

alcohol and caffine block adh

peaks during puberty and 1/2 hour after falling asleep

-decreases with age

1- increase height

2-increase size and strength of bones

3-increase muscle mass

4-stimulate growth of all organs (dangerous side effect of abusing the hormone for body builders=heart attack)

main anabolic steroid for growth

anabolic: builds muscle and bone mass

androgenic effects: facial hair, low voice, agression

receptors in eyes that regulate circadia rythum (sleep cycle)

-secrete melatonin (makes you sleepy when you close your eyes)

controls metabolism using thyroxine (primary hormone of thyroid)

-iodine is required to make thyroxine (fortified in table salt)

involuntary responses to external stimulus (cough, sneeze, shiver, blink)

-direct connection between sensory neuron and motor neuron (brain is not invoved in process)

lipid rich covering (insulation) around axon

-increases impulse speed

-isulates axon

(resting potential) differentce in charge btwn inside and outside of the cell

(-) charged

-DNA protiens have a (-) net charge

-takes energy(ATP) to run

-reverses sodium and potasium channels

-pumps K+ in and Na+ out)

1-sodium channels open and Na+ begins to flow into the cell changing its charge to (+)

2-step 1 causes the next sodium channel to open and puch in more Na+

3-potasium channels open right after sodium channels to pump K+ out to temp. reset cell charge

4-using ATP ebergy, pump Na+ out of sell and K+ back into cell restores it to original state

vertebrates w/myelin sheath=272mph

invertebrate w/o sheath=4.5mph

hormones secreted into synapse

-stored in small vesicles at the end of axon

CA2+ flows into nerve cells and causes vesicles to move to the edge of axon and break open spilling neurotrans. into synapse

-either recycled or destroyed afterwards

blocks reuptake of dopamine so you feel good longer

body produces enzymes to destroy dopamine buildup. when you kill the dopamine your body need more and more doses of cocaine to restore the natural dopamine you keep killing off and when you do not have it your levels are below what is normal so you become dependent on cocaine=addiction

cellular structure in brain that prevents bacteria and large molecules from entering nervous tissue

-small things like viruses, water O2 and glucose can get through though

rapid simultanious firing of neurons in brain

-Epelipsy: episodic abnomal electric activity in the brain

-Tonic-clonic: most severe (violent convultions and brain damage from lack of oxygen from in ability to breath)

-Absence: mild and unaware like sleep walking

-mechanical protection of brain (air bag)

-transport molecules to and from nervous system

-controls blood and nutrients to the brain

varies when you cough or sneeze (causes headache)

-too high: prevent O2 glucose and H2O from properly diffusing into the brain

-too low: headaches when standing blurred vision

survival functions (breathing, heart beat, digestion)

-conducts info to higher brain centers

cordinates vision and hearing

-visual reflexes in humans

-rest of vision is through cerebrum

deep-seated pure emotions "caveman emotions"

-thirst, hunger, sex drive, fight/flight

(oneirology)

dream for about 2 hours every night replaying events of the day helping you form connections and create memories/learn

left and right brain

left=right side of body (logical)

right=left side of body (artistic)

-practice/repeated repetition

-+/- emotional state

-new data can be associated with something previously learned

-repeated testing proves you know it

chronic obstructive pulminary disease

-combination of emphesyma and chronic bronchitis

-airway is narrowed so it is difficult to breathe

ventilation in the lungs is stopped for a brief amount of time

-caused by overdose of muscle relaxants or brain's inability to regulate breathing

(sudden infant death syndrome)

-brain cannot read CO2 levels properly and doesnot tell infant to breathe

severe acute respiratory syndrome

-caused by coronavirus

-very contagious but not very fatal

soluable fiber: fermented in large intestine to produce short chain fatty acids (pectin) and removes cholesterol, stablized blood sugar and helps immune system

insoluable fiber: attracts water and promotes fater movement of waste material but may increase risk of colon cancer

people starve to death from lack of protien not energy

leptin: produced by fat cells

cholecystokinin: made by small intestine when you eat tells brain you are full

found in cows, sheep and buffalo

-multichambered stomache