Term
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Definition
1.2.2 Palmer & Hollin
-tests Kohlberg's theory in a criminal context
-332 male and female non-offenders
-126 male offenders
-social moral dilemmas
-male offenders lowest moral reasoning, functioning mainly at pre-conventional level |
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Term
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Definition
2.3.1 Ressler
-FBI's approach to criminal profiling
-36 offenders & their 118 victims
-research focused on offender classification
-find consistent features across offences
-24 offenders could be classified as organised and the other 12 could be placed in disorganised category |
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Term
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Definition
3.3.2 Asch
-male participants (thought it was a vision test)
-each naive participant placed in a group with 7 confederates
-target line shown and each person had to say aloud which of the 3 lines matched the target line in length
-answer was always obvious
-naive p always last to answer
-confederates gave wrong answer on 12/18 trials
-32% of p's conformed with majority |
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Term
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Definition
1.3.2 Brunner
-study of violence in a family in the Netherlands of genetic abnormality -data collected from urine samples over a 24 month period -mutation found in X chromosome of gene responsible for producing monoamine oxidase enzyme A (MAOA) -deficit of MAOA links to serotonin metabolism so caused too much serotonin in the system which cannot be metabolised by the body -could cause the mental retardation and aggressive behaviour of family -behavioural phenotype |
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Term
| Effect of Inadmissible Evidence |
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Definition
3.1.3 Pickel
-more than 200 students
-audiotape of fictional theft case
-mention of previous conviction made by witness
-4 conditions - admissible evidence, inadmissible without explanation, inadmissible with explanation & control
-highest % of guilty verdicts - admissible
-lowest % of guilty verdicts - control
-inadmissible with an explanation not sig. dif. with admissible group - not as successful at dismissing what they'd heard |
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Term
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Definition
2.2.2 Inbau
-described Reid's 9 steps of interrogation
-creates situation where suspect feels they must admit their guilt
-direct confrontation
-chance to shift blame
-never allow the suspect to deny guilt -ignore excuses
-reinforce sincerity, eye contact & first names
-look for any micro signs of guilt -pose 'alternative question'
-admit guilt
-signed confession |
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Term
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Definition
1.3.3 Raine
-review article of variety of studies that identify biological differences in children who become aggressive/anti-social
-low resting heart rate most common feature of antisocial children
-males lower heart-rate than females
-low heart-rate is heritable
-inter-realtion between low heart-rate and psychosocial risk factors
-can explain why males commit more crimes than females |
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Term
| Attractiveness of Defendant |
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Definition
3.2.1 Castellow
-lab based study
-male and female uni students to read sexual harassment case
-photographs of victim and defendant included
-categorised as either attractive or unattractive
-questionnaire - included q 'do you think Mr Radford is guilty of sexual harassment?'
-rate defendant & victim on number of scales such as warm/cold
-attractive defendant guilty 56% of time
-unattractive defendant guilty 76& of time
-when victim was attractive, defendant guilty 77% of time
-when victim was unattractive, defendant was guilty 55% of time
-supports Halo effect |
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Term
| Poverty & Disadvantaged Neighbourhoods |
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Definition
1.1.3 Wikstrom & Tafel
-snapshot study
-year 10 students from 13 schools in Peterborough
-self-report questionnaires asking about criminality
-collected neighbourhood disadvantage data from census
-1/2 of males & 1/3 females committed at least one of crimes on checklist in year 2000
-high frequency offenders commit wide range of crimes
-offenders use more alcohol and drugs
-living in disadvantaged area does not directly predict criminality
-can predict other characteristics which then link to crime |
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Term
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Definition
2.1.1 Bruce
-celebrity faces to test whether external or internal facial features more important
-all p's given 10 photos of celebrities to match to correct composite image from 40 composites given
-3 conditions - complete composites, internal features & external features
-33% of whole composites & external features solved correctly
-only 19.5% of internal solved correctly |
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Term
| Shields, Videotape & Children |
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Definition
3.2.3 Ross
-video professional actors of real trial
-300 psychology students
-3 conditions - child testified in open court, in shield condition & videotape condition
-p's asked to judge guilt of victim
-not significant difference between conditions |
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Term
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Definition
1.3.1 Raine
-aimed to identify which brain areas are responsible for development of violent criminality
-41 murderers (39 men, 2 women) matched with 41 non-murderers on age & sex
-all p's injected with glucose tracer whilst doing continuous performance task and then PET scanned
-reduced activity in murderers compared to nun-murderers in prefrontal cortex
-left hemisphere less activity than right in murderers
-abnormal asymmetries in amygdala and thalamus - fearlessness |
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Term
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Definition
2.1.3 Fisher
-tested the effectiveness of CI
-interviews real witnesses
-16 detectives in Florida
-divided into 2 groups
-7 detectives trained in CI interviews
-both recorded over 7 months
-transcribed by blind team
-CI detectives elicited 47% more info than before & 63% more info than untrained |
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Term
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Definition
3.2.2 Penrod & Cutler
-examine factors that affect how jurors evaluate eyewitness identification
-lab experiment mock trial
-undergrad students & experienced jurors
-watched videotape of robbery
-either 80% or 100% confident about suspect identification
-number of other variables introduced at high or low level
-p's asked if robber was guilty or not
-in 100% condition - 67% guilty
-in 80% condition - 60% guilty |
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Term
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Definition
2.3.2 Godwin & Canter
-British approach to profiling
-'circle hypothesis'
-investigated 54 US serial killers' spatial behaviour
-nearly all victims close to their own home
-85% of offenders studied lived inside circle encompassing their offences
-the offender would then travel some distance to dump the body
-as the number of offences progresses, bodies dumped closer to home |
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Term
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Definition
1.1.2 Bandura
-36 boys and 36 girls (mean = 4 years and 4 months)
-Matched pairs - matched on the basis of their pre-existing aggressiveness
-The role models - one male adult and one female adult
-3 conditions - aggressive condition, non-aggressive condition and the control group
-3 IVs - condition the children were exposed to, the sex of the role model and the sex of the child
-Child witnessed either agg. (hit bobo doll on head with mallet) or non-agg. act then aggression aroused
-Child in agg. condition demonstrated more agg. behaviour later that day
-Agg. behaviour more common when same-sex model and child
-Links to crime – criminal parents role models; criminal siblings; peers (gangs) and vicarious reinforcement (status/respect) |
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Term
| Factors Affecting Identification |
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Definition
2.1.2 Loftus
-aimed to find evidence for the 'weapon focus' effect when witnessing a crime
-36 students aged 18-31 Uni of Washington
-shown 2 sets of slides
-control group person B hands cashier a cheque
-experiment group person B pulls a gun
-questionnaire and 12 photos - rate confidence on scale & eye fixation data
-control - 7/18 p's correctly identified the suspect
-weapon - 2/18 p's correctly identified the suspect
-no difference in confidence level
-eye fixation average 3.72 on gun and 2.44 on cheque |
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Term
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Definition
1.2.3 Gudjonsson & Bownes
-relationship between type of offence and attributions criminals make
-80 prisoners in Northern Ireland
-3 types of prisoners - violent, sex and property
-p's given Gudjonsson Blame Attribution Inventory (GBAI) questionnaire
-sex offenders most guilty and then violent
-violent offenders highest scores for external attribution
-sex offenders lowest scores for external attribution |
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Term
| Stages in Decision Making |
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Definition
3.3.1 Hastie
-mock juries for fictional murder trial
-3 conditions - arriving at unanimous decision (12-0), majority (10-2) and divided (8-4)
-groups videotaped & researchers looked for similarities in developments of discussions
-3 stages:
-orientation period
-open confrontation
-reconciliation |
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Term
| Persuasion - Use of Expert Witnesses |
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Definition
3.1.2 Loftus
-investigate the influence of expert testimony on jurors about eyewitness identification
-lab exp. 120 students Uni of Washington
-20 x groups of 6
-booklet with summary of trial
-10 groups read expert psychological testimony & 10 groups didn't
-asked to reach group verdict in 30 mins
-observers with stopwatches listened
-no expert testimony - 7 guilty, 2 not guilty and 1 failed to reach a verdict
-with expert testimony - 3 guilty, 4 not guilty and 3 failed to reach a verdict
-with expert testimony p's spent on average over 10 mins discussing EWT
-without expert testimony p's spent on average 7 mins |
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Term
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Definition
1.1.1 Farrington
- Prospective longitudinal study
- 411 boys aged 8, first studied in 1961, South London
-Data gathered self-report (interviews)
Police records and education records checked
-Overall, shows disrupted families can negatively influence someone’s behaviour over their lives
-Factors highlighted to predict criminality – low family income, large families, poor housing, convicted parent, delinquent sibling, young mother, high daring, disrupted family |
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Term
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Definition
3.1.1 Pennington & Hastie
-investigate effect of presenting info in court in either story or witness order
-students split into 4 groups (defence/prosecution story/witness order)
-tape recording of mock trial
-responded to written q's
-reach guilty or not verdict & rate confidence on 5 point scale
-story order showed to be more persuasive |
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Term
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Definition
2.2.3 Gudjonsson
-case study of 17 year youth
-accused or murder
-no forensic evidence
-not allowed solicitor
-after 14 hours of aggressive questioning he confessed
-he retracted the next day only to confess again when questioned about unsuccessful relationships with women
-no evidence of mental illness & average IQ
-high score on Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale
-after year in jail, he was released as someone else admitted guilt |
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Term
| Criminal Thinking Patterns |
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Definition
1.2.1 Yochelson & Samenow
-255 p's from mental hospital found not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
-interviews over several years
-Freudian style - looking for hidden messages
-found criminals were restless, dissatisfied and irritable
-cognitive processes led to distorted self-image
-40 main 'thinking errors' falling into 3 main categories:
1. criminal thinking patterns
2. automatic thinking errors
3. crime-related thinking errors |
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Term
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Definition
3.3.3 Moscovici
-aimed to find whether consistent minority of p's could influence a majority to give incorrect answer
-colour perception test
-4 naive p's, 2 confederates
-p's looked at 36 slides containing coloured disks
-asked to estimate the colour of disks
-all blue but differed in brightness
-consistent condition - confederates called the disks green on all trials
-inconsistent condition - confederates called the disks green 24 times and blue 12 times
-minority more likely to persuade majority if consistent
-but still only a small % of persuasion |
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Term
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Definition
2.3.3 Canter
-John Duffy the Railway Rapist
-24 sexual assaults & 3 murders near railways in North London
-Canter drew a profile of offender
-geographical profile (marauder)
-John Duffy arrested 1986
-number 1505 out of 2000 suspects
-Canter predicted living in Kilburn, living with wife, physically small, age 20-30
-John Duffy lived in Kilburn, married, 5'4 and aged 28 |
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Term
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Definition
2.2.1 Mann
-24 female & 75 male Kent police officers
-saw clips of 14 suspects and asked to indicate whether lying or truth
-also asked to list cues
-police officers ability to detect lies was 66.2%
-can detect lies above chance but cannot establish if better than normal people |
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Term
| Planned Behaviours Once Freed From Jail |
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Definition
4.1.1 Gillis & Nafekh
-how employment training might reduce recidivism rates
-matched pair design p's matched on sentence length, release year, gender, risk level, family/marital relations and substance abuse
-assessed in 2 groups - those managed secure jobs just before leaving prison (employment training course) and those hadn't and leaving prison to become unemployed
-DVs: length of time between release and re-conviction & how many remained released and how many did not
-70% of employed group remained on conditional release compared to 55% of unemployed group
-37 months was median return time to prison for employed group compared to 11 months for unemployed group |
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Term
| Depression/Suicide Risk in Prisons |
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Definition
4.1.2 Palmer & Connelly
-compare depressive characteristics of prisoners who report previous self-harm with those who do not
-adult male prisoners in England who new to custody
-100 prisoners gave consent
-matched pairs design
-24 p's reported previous self-harm matched with 24 who didn't
-matched on age, ethnic origin, penal status, offence type and number of previous custodial sentences
-p's completed several self-report measures
-Beck Hopelessness Scale - assessed extent of negative expectancies about immediate & long-term future - composed of 20 items scored either 1 (hopelessness)- 0 (non-hopelessness). A score higher than 14 = severe hopelessness
-Beck Depression Inventory II - assessed level of depressive symptoms - composed of 21 items - rated on 4 point scale from 0 (not depressive) - 3 (depressive). A score higher than 28 = severe depression
-Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation - assessed suicide intent and thoughts
-History of Self-harm p's more depressed and vulnerable (average score of 27 of Beck Depression Inventory II) than control p's (average score of 15) |
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Term
| The Prison Situation & Roles |
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Definition
4.1.3 Zimbardo
-Stanford Prison Experiment
-22 male volunteers randomly assigned role of guard or prisoner
-guards:
-instructed make their own decisions on to maintain control but no physical abuse
-allowed to return home after working shift
-issued a khaki uniform, with whistles, handcuffs and dark glasses
-prisoners:
-referred to by a number instead of a name
-remained in the prison throughout
-stripped naked, had all personal possessions removed & were given prison clothes & bedding
-study ended prematurely on day 6 as guards engaged in cruel behaviour & some prisoners showed signs of extreme emotional distress
-guards appeared to enjoy the power & prisoners ranged from disbelief from hunger strikes
-prisoners lost sense of individuality & feelings of hopelessness
-created by situation rather than individual traits of aggression |
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Term
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Definition
4.2.1 Mair & May
-aimed to survey 3,000 offenders to assess the effectiveness of probation service
-random sampling to contact 3,299 offenders on probation in 22/55 probation areas in England & Wales
-a final total 1,213 were interviewed by researchers
-p's mainly male, young & unemployed
-nearly 1/2 of p's reported taking drugs over the past year
-47% felt probation was useful
-37% felt probation would stop them re-offending altogether |
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Term
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Definition
4.2.2 Sherman & Strang
-review of RJ programmes in UK and internationally (all English-speaking)
-internet & database searches
-36 studies in review
-findings found RJ reduced re-offending in violent & property crimes
-RJ reduced post-traumatic stress symptoms and desire for revenge in victims
-RJ cost state less than CJ
-RJ preferred over CJ by both victims & offenders
-RJ most effective for crimes with personal victim e.g. hit-and-run & burglary
-less effective for impersonal e.g. shoplifting |
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Term
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Definition
4.2.3 Eberhardt
-examined stereo-typicality of black defendants sentenced to death
-51 mostly white & Asian Stanford undergrads
-rate black faces for stereo-typicality of 'black' features
-faces of defendants in Philadelphia accused of murdering white victims over a 20-year period
-60% of those rated as high stereo-typicality were condemned to approx. 24% of those rated as low in stereo-typicality
-98% of chief district attorneys in states with death penalty are white
-80% of murder victims in cases that resulted in death penalty are white, whereas only 50% of murder victims in general are white
-most likely to get death penalty is black defendant murdering a white victim |
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Term
| Cognitive Skills Programme |
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Definition
4.3.1 Friendship
-investigates the effects of cognitive behavioural treatment programme on reconviction rates
-quasi experiment, independent measures
-2 groups - Treatment group & Comparison group
-Treatment group - 670 adult male offenders who voluntarily participated in 1 of 2 Cognitive Skills programmes run by HM Prison Service between 1992 and 1996
-Comparison Group - 1801 adult male offenders who had not participated
-six matching variables (current offence, sentence length, age at discharge, year of discharge, number of previous convictions & probability of reconviction)
-2 types of programmes:
-Reasoning & Rehabilitation (R&R) 36 2-hour sessions
-Enhanced Thinking Skills (ETS) 20 2-hour sessions
-treatment focused on self-control, inter-personal problem-solving skills & moral reasoning
-results showed treatments were effective
-for the risk categories (low, low-medium, medium-high & high) all p's less likely to re-convict after treatment
-especially for medium groups |
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Term
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Definition
4.3.2 Ireland
-assesses the effectiveness of brief group-based anger management intervention with young male offenders
-87 prisoners
-all p's completed a self-report anger questionnaire (Anger Management Assessment Questionnaire)
-all p's assessed by officers on a checklist addressing angry behaviour (Wing Behaviour Checklist)
-both measures completed 2 weeks before intervention and 8 weeks after
-experimental group - 50 p's
-control group - 37 p's
-experimental group showed significant improvement on both measures:
-92% showed an improvement of at least one measure
-48% showed improvement on both
-control group showed no significant improvement |
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Term
| Ear Acupuncture Treatment |
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Definition
4.3.3 Margolin
-620 cocaine dependant adults, not prisoners, USA
-3 groups:
-ear acupuncture - needles inserted into ears bilaterally at 4 points
-needle-insertion control group - 4 needles of same size and type inserted at 3 different points
-relaxation control group - p's viewed videos with relaxation techniques with relaxing visual imagery & soft music
-all treatments offered 5 times per week for 8 weeks
-no sig. difference in attendance of treatment
-no sig. difference in reported credibility of treatments
-cocaine use declined across all groups but no sig. difference between groups |
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