Term
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Definition
the smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element, consisting of a nucleus containing combinations of neutrons and protons and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus by electrical attraction; the number of protons determines the identity of the element.
b.
an atom with one of the electrons replaced by some other particle: muonic atom; kaonic atom. |
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Term
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Definition
| Recombinant DNA is a type of DNA that is artificially created by inserting a strand or more of DNA into a different set of DNA. Recombinant DNA is used in genetic modification to create completely new organisms by adding artificial bits or bits of DNA from other organisms to an existing creature. Recombinant DNA is often referred to as rDNA for short. |
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Term
| What is genetic engineering |
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Definition
| Genetic modification is when you take a beneficial gene, a bit of DNA, from one species and add it to the DNA sequence of another species. The genetically modified subject will use the gene and benefit from it, for example to grow better fruit or be resistant to disease, or to produce insulin. |
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Term
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Definition
plasmids are circular DNA particles within a micro organism that is not part of the main DNA of the cell.
one example of that is insulin production in E.coli cells. the gene for insulin from human cells is introduced into plasmids that is complementary to e.coli cells with the help of restriction enzymes. then the plasmids are introduced into treated (transformed) e.coli cells that can "absorb" these plasmids. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cloning vector is a small piece of DNA into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted. The insertion of the fragment into the cloning vector is carried out by treating the vehicle and the foreign DNA with a restriction enzyme that creates the same overhang, then ligating the fragments together. There are many types of cloning vectors. |
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Term
| characteristics of cloning vectors |
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Definition
| Origin of replication, restriction sites |
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Term
| How are bacterial plasmids used to clone “genes.? |
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Definition
| First, the gene of interest is isolated from the original DNA, and split up into many different parts. Then each part of the gene is inserted and ligated into a different bacterial plasmid, creating a library of plasmids. Finally, a host (such as the bacterium E. coli) is induced to take up the plasmid from the environment through transformation; each E. coli cell is grown individually into a colony. The end result is a bunch of different colonies, each with an amplified piece of the original gene. The colonies can then be processed and the genes harvested. |
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Term
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Definition
| a subatomic particle having no electrical charge (electrically neutral), with a mass of about 1.7 10−24 g, found in the nucleus of an atom |
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Term
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Definition
| a subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge, with a mass of about 1.7 10−24 g, found in the nucleus of an atom |
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Term
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Definition
| subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge and a mass about ½,000 that of a neutron or proton. One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom |
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Term
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Definition
| The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique for each element and designated by a subscript to the left of the elemental symbol. (the little number before the symbol) |
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| the electrons in the outer-most shell of the atom. They are typically the electrons which are involved in forming bonds to other atoms (as opposed to the other so-called "core" electrons which do not interact much with other atoms or molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| One of several atomic forms of an element, each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, thus differing in atomic mass |
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Term
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Definition
| type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| a covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive. |
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Term
Non-polar covalent bonds
Sharing meaning they attract |
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Definition
| a type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity |
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Term
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Definition
| a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions. |
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Term
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Definition
| a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides (carbohydrates), proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules |
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Term
| Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides |
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Definition
| Function: serve as fuel and building material. Structure: chain-like molecules called polymers, built up of monomers |
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Term
| Lipids: does not include true polymers, generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules. Do not mix with water, hydrophobic |
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Definition
| Function: . Structure: consist mostly of hydrocarbon regions |
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Term
| Proteins: enzymes, regulate metabolism. |
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Definition
| Function: Workhorses that keep cells running by carrying out the processes of life Structure: most structurally sophisticated molecules known, each protein has a specific structure and function. Amino acids. Amino acids sequence, not just one polypeptide chain but several twisted and folded into a unique shape. |
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Term
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Definition
Role: most common monosaccharide. Major nutrients for cells. In cellular respiration, cells extract energy in a series of reactions starting with glucose molecules. Their carbon skeletons also serve as raw material for the synthesis of other types of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and fatty acids.
Structure: C6H12O6, linear carbon skeleton not completely accurate, most sugars form rings. Monomers: |
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Term
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Definition
| two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond. Maltose, used in brewing beer. Sucrose, table sugar. Lactose |
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Term
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Definition
| Role: Structure: constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules, glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons, each bearing a hydroxyl group. A fatty acid has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. Saturated fats packed closely together, unsaturated fats, kinks in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains. Monomers: |
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Term
Phospholipids
Many lipids cell |
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Definition
| Role: make up cell membranes Structure: hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic and excluded from water. Hydrophilic head that has an affinity for water. Monomers: |
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Term
| Steroids: especially cholesterol |
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Definition
Role: cholesterol synthesized in the liver, many hormones are steroids produced from cholesterol
Structure: lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Monomers |
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Term
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Definition
Role: enzymes regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts, workhorses that keep cells running
Structure: Proteins are all polymers constructed from the same set of 20 amino acids. Polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides. A protein consists of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled in a specific 3d structure. 4 levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
Monomers: |
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Term
| Primary organization of protein structure |
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Definition
| refers to the specific sequence of amino acids |
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Term
| secondary level of organization of protein structure |
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Definition
| the localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between constituents of the backbone |
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Term
| tertiary level of organization of protein structure |
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Definition
| irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges |
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Term
| Quaternary level of organization of protein structure |
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Definition
| the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic 3d arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide. |
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Term
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Definition
| : a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Organisms with eukaryotic cells (protists, plants, fungi, and animals), are called eukaryotes |
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Term
| Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) |
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Definition
| network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetis and metabolic processes; has rough and smooth regions. Rough has ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane. |
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Term
Which plasmids are used in
plants? |
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Definition
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Term
| restriction endonucleases |
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Definition
| is another name for Restriction enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER |
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Term
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Definition
| structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli |
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Term
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Definition
| material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in dividing cell |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| complexes (small brown dots) that make proteins; free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope |
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Term
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Definition
| organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products |
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Term
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Definition
| digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed |
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Term
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Definition
| organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated |
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Term
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Definition
| various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water |
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Term
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Definition
| projections that increase the cell’s surface area |
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Term
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Definition
| reinforces cell’s shape, functions in cell movement; components are made of protein. Includes: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules |
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Term
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Definition
| locomotion organelle present in some animal cells; composed of a cluster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| region where the cell’s microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles |
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Term
| In animal cells but not plant cells |
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Definition
| lysosomes, centrosomes with centrioles, flagella |
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Term
| In plant cells but not animal cells |
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Definition
| chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall, plasmodesmata |
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Term
| differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells |
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Definition
| Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells. Both have plasma membrane, chromosomes, ribosomes. In a eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA is in the nucleus, whereas in a prokaryotic cell the DNA is concentrated in a regions that is not membrane-endlosed, called the nucleoid. Eukaryotic cells are much bigger. |
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Term
| structure and function of Nucleus |
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Definition
| contains most of the genes. Nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus. Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized into chromosomes, made up of chromatin. The nucleus directs proteins synthesis by synthesizing mRNA according to instructions provided by DNA. mRNA is then transported to the cytoplasm, ribosomes translate the genetic message. |
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Term
| structure and function of ribosomes |
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Definition
| a complex of rRNA and protein molecules that functions as a site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of a large and a small subunit. In eukaryotic cells, each subunit is assembled in the nucleolus. |
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Term
| components of endomembrane system |
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Definition
| regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell. Synthesis of proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons. Includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various kinds of vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. |
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Term
| Effect of impaired lysosomal function |
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Definition
| The cells of people with inherited lysosomal storage diseases lack a functioning hydrolytic enzyme normally present in lysosomes. The lysosomes become engorged with indigestible substrates, which begin to interfere with other cellular activities. In Tay-Sachs disease, for example, a lipid-digesting enzyme is missing or inactive, and the bran becomes impaired by an accumulation of lipids in the cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| gives mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape. Like a geodesic dome. Motility and regulation |
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Term
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Definition
| structure- hollow tubes; wall consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules. Functions- maintains the cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movements in cell division, organelle movements. |
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Term
| How do you find the location of a particular RNA |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| structure- two intertwined strands of actin, each a polymer of actin subunits. Functions- maintains cell shape, changes in cell shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility, cell division |
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Term
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Definition
| structure- fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables. Functions- maintains cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina |
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Term
| characteristics of a membrane |
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Definition
| exhibits selective permeability, allows some substances to cross it more easily than others. Lipids and proteins are staple ingredients, carbs also important. |
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Term
| Nucleic acid hybridization |
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Definition
| in-situ hybridization or how you can tell degree of genetic similarity between pools of DNA sequences. It is usually used to determine the genetic distance between two species |
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Term
Amphipathetic
hot then your cold |
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Definition
| it has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region, like phospholipids |
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Term
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Definition
| the currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids |
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Term
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Definition
| the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane with no expenditure of energy |
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Term
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Definition
| the spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient, from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated |
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Term
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Definition
| the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane with the assistance of specific transmembrane proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| the movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient; mediated by specific transport proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| solution that, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to take up water. |
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Term
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Definition
| referring to a solution that, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to lose water |
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Term
| Northern and Southern use what |
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Definition
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Term
Western blotting you find a _____
What do you use to label the proteins. |
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Definition
Proteins
Anitbodies -Take the protein and inject it into a pig… and the pig will reject it and start creating antibody’s to protect it.
Now take a secondary antibody that will attach to the antibodies that the pig is making.
Now put it on a plate and put a radio active on the second antibody |
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Term
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Definition
| has no effect on the passage of water into or out of the cell. |
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Term
Membrane potential
To do work |
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Definition
| the difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a cell’s plasma membrane, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances. |
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Term
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Definition
| the diffusion gradient of an ion, which is affected by both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane (a chemical force) and the ion’s tendency to move relative to the membrane potential (an electrical force). |
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Term
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Definition
| an ion transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| an active transport protein in a cell membrane that uses ATP to transport hydrogen ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient, generating a membrane potential in the process |
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Term
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Definition
| the coupling of the “downhill” diffusion of one substance to the “uphill” transport of another against its own concentration gradient. |
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Term
| Role of the sodium potassium pump |
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Definition
| A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. |
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Term
receptor mediated endocytosis
Parents and kids |
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Definition
| The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances. |
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Term
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Definition
| the catabolic pathways of aerobic and anaerobic respiration, which break down organic molecules for the production of ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| a catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. |
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Term
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Definition
| a chemical reaction involving the complete or partial transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; short for oxidation-reduction reaction. |
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Term
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Definition
| the loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction |
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Term
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Definition
| the addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction |
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Term
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Definition
| a catabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and organic molecules, producing ATP. This is the most efficient catabolic pathway and is carried out in most eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| You are used to talking about transcription of DNA INTO mRNA. If you use special enzymes called reverse-transcriptases, you can transcribe mRNA into DNA, which is then called cDNA as complementary DNA. This is not the same of the DNA from which you got the mRNA in the first place, because it does not have introns or regulative regions. In the labs, you make cDNA when you want to analyze mRNA because it is more stable than mRNA itself and it is its exact copy. |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of inorganic molecules other than oxygen to accept electrons at the “downhill” end of electron transport chains |
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Term
| first electron acceptor and final electron acceptor of cellular respiration |
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Definition
NADH+ is the first
Oxygen is the final Electron Accepter |
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Term
| role of oxygen in cellular respiration |
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Definition
"Without oxygen, cellular respiration could not occur because oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport system. The electron transport system would therefore not be available.
Glycolysis can occur without oxygen. Although glycolysis does not require oxygen, it does require NAD+. Cells without oxygen available need to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so that in the absence of oxygen, at least some ATP can be made by glycolysis." |
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Term
| Compare and contrast oxidative phosphorylation, substrate level phosphorylation |
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Definition
• Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle ->produces Substrate leval phosphorylation made by enzymes • Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis produce -> Oxidative phosphorylation.
Substrate level phosphorylation occurs in the cytosol of the cell. It removes a phosphate directly from a substrate and transfers it to ADP. This is accomplished anaerobically.
Oxidative Phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. In this process electrons are transferred from the oxidation of NADH+H+, and FADH2 to molecules of O2. This process requires O2 and is termed aeribic respiration. |
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Term
| Know when ATP, NADPH and FADH2 are produced during cellular respiration |
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Definition
-FADH2 During the citric acid cycle,
-ATP is produced during Glycolysis, Citric acid cycle, electron transport chain
-NADPH is produced during the light reaction of photosynthesis. During the light reaction, solar energy energizes electrons that move down an (ETC) electron transport chain. As they move down this chain, energy is released and captured for the production of ATP molecules and some are also taken up by NADP which becomes NADPH.
If you are looking for the biological location in plants, that would be within the thylakoid. |
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Term
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Definition
is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration.
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Term
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Definition
The turbine of the cell.
is an important enzyme that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells from most organisms. It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganicphosphate (Pi), and needs energy. |
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Term
| What are Redox reactions, oxidation, reduction |
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Definition
• Redox reactions: a chemical reaction involving the complete or partial transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; short for oxidation-reduction reaction.
• Oxidation: the loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction
• Reduction: the addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction. |
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Term
| autotrophs, photoautotrophs, heterotrophs, decomposers, examples |
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Definition
• Autotrophs – “Self-feeders” They sustain them selves without eating anyting derived from living beings. “Produces” ex Plants
• Photoautotrophs- Use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances. Ex Plants, alga
• Heterotrophs- Obtain their organic material by the second major mode of nutrition. “Consumers”. Hetero meaning other …. Ex Humans
• Decomposers, Break down organisms and things to gain energy. Fungi |
|
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Term
| explain light reactions, Calvin cycle, where do they occur, inputs and outputs |
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Definition
• Light Reactions- Inputs->Light,H2O Outputs->O2 occur in the thylakoid membranes
• Calvin Cycle- Inputs-> CO2 Outputs-> CH2O Suger occur in the thylakoid membrane |
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Term
| difference between absorption spectrum and action spectrum |
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Definition
• Absorption Spectrum-> The range of a pigmen’s ability to absorb various wavelenghths of light also a graph of such a range.
• Action Spectrum-> A graph that profiles the relative effectiveness, of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a particular process. |
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Term
characteristics of Photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII), Calvin cycle, inputs and products (outputs). Compare and contrast light dependent and light independent reactions of photosynthesis.
Photo 1-> Not Number one
Photo 2-> Does everyhing 1 can and more.
Calvin fixes something ___ With ATP and _____ |
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Definition
| • Photosystem 1-> electron transfer is the primary function of photosystem I • Photo 2 -> generation of ATP along with the splitting of water molecule and electron transfer. • Calvin cycle imputs and outputs-> Synthesize simple sugars from carbon dioxide. It uses ATP and NADPH made in the light stage to fix CO2 |
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Term
| define photosystem, reaction center, primary electron acceptor, antenna pigment molecules, |
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Definition
• Photosystem-> A biochemical mechanism in plants by which chlorophyll absorbs light energy for photosynthesis • Reaction center -> a complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron accepter. Located centrally in a photo system. • Primary electron acceptors-> When photosystem II absorbs light, electrons in the reaction-center chlorophyll are excited to a higher energy level and are trapped by the primary electron acceptors • Antenna pigment molecules. -> to harvest photons and transfer light energy to the reaction-center chlorophyll
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Term
| Difference between cyclic electron flow and non-cyclic photophosphorylation. What is producedin each of the cases? |
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Definition
| • If the plant has plenty of light available but it has little NADP+, which light reaction system (cyclic or non-cyclic) would the chloroplast use? |
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Term
| Importance of Rubisco, reaction that catalyzes |
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Definition
• A reaction that catalyzes
• Catalyzes, CO2 fixation in the calvin cycle by attaching CO2 to RuBP |
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Term
| compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration (know the equations for both of them) |
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Definition
• 5 Similarities
1) Both involve electron transport chains.
2) Chemiomosis allows ATP synthase to produce ATP.
3) Both take place at some point within an organelle (mit. = CR, chloroplast= photo.)
4) Both utilize ATP for energy at some points.
5) Both provide power for cellular activities.
• 5 Differences
1)Cellular respiration depends on oxygen as a substrate.
2)Photosythesis utilizes 2 electron transport chains (not just 1).
3)In Photo. , energy is provided by photons and not catabolic processes as in cell. resp.
4)Photosynthesis involves the production of NADPH (CR involves NADH and FADH2)
5)Photosynthesis involves CO2 and H20 as substrates (splitting h20 provides the electrons for the process). |
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Term
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Definition
| A threadlike gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and most visible during mitosis and meiosis; also, the main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| The thing that holds the chromatids together in the middle. |
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Term
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Definition
-> are chromosomes that contain the same genes, but may have different alleles for those genes.
In a homologous pair, one chromosome comes from the mother and the other from the father. |
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Term
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Definition
| contain the same genes (ie: they code for the same proteins), whereas non sister chromatids do not. |
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Term
| cytokinesis in plants and animals |
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Definition
• Cytokinesis, from the greek cyto- (cell) and kinesis (division), is the process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells.
• Plants-> makes a cell wall. |
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Term
| . compare and contrast cell division in prokaryotic bacteria, plants and animals. |
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Definition
• The only difference is during between animals is Telophase in which a plant cell gets a cell plate and an animal cell gets a clevage furrow during seperation.
• The usual method of prokaryote cell division is termed binary fission (The method by which bacteria reproduce. The circular DNA molecule is replicated; then the cell splits into two identical cells, each containing an exact copy of the original cell's DNA.).
• Eukaryotic chromosomes occur in the cell in greater numbers than prokaryotic chromosomes. |
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Term
| what happens in cancer cells? What is metastasis? , distinguish between malignant and benign tumors |
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Definition
• (Metastasis is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body. Localized spread to lymph nodes is not normally counted as metastasis, although this is a sign of poor prognosis.)
• Malignant is metastasise and benign is not. |
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Term
| Know what happens in G1, S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. |
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Definition
• G1 – during the G1 stage of the interphase the cell is growing.
• S – during the S stage of the interphase, a complete replica of the cell’s DNA is made in preparation for cell division.
• G2 – in the G2 stage of the interface, the time gap between the end of DNA replication and the beginning of cell division, the supercoils of DNA condense into tightly compacted bodies that become visible as chromosomes during mitosis. |
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Term
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Definition
| A unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the...: "proteins coded directly by genes" |
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Term
|
Definition
| The haploid set of chromosomes of an organism. The complete set of genetic material of an organism. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The Generation to generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism. |
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Term
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Definition
| Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg. |
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Term
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Definition
| A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pair of chromosomes of the same length centomere position and staining pattern that posses genes from the same characters at corresponding loci one homologous chromosome is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. Also called homologs |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosome that is not directly involved in determing sex not a sex chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| A haploid reproductive cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid Zygote. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A cell containing only one set of chromosomes. h |
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Term
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Definition
| The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote (2) The addition of mineral nutrients to the soil. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes during fertilization a fertilized egg. |
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Term
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Definition
| -> A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n) one set inherited from each parent. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -> A cell containing only one set of chromosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Two chromosomes that come together and cross over. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Where the crossing occurs |
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Term
|
Definition
| The pairing and physical connection of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase 1 of meiosis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The complex of DNA and proteins that make up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as mass of very long thin fibers. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| , the one side of the chromosome or sister chromatids |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -> The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase 1 of meiosis. |
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Term
recombinant chromosomes
Recombination of mom and dad |
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Definition
| A chromosome created when crossing over combines the DNA from two parents into a single chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| The synaptonemal complex is a protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes (two pairs of sister chromatids) during meiosis and that is thought to mediate chromosome pairing,synapsis, and recombination (crossing-over). |
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Term
| Know what happens in each one of the meiosis phases. Be able to draw meiosis given certain number of chromosome pairs or the chromosome number. Compare and contrast the different phases. Know the changes in chromosome number and DNA amount during each of the stages |
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Definition
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Term
| How is genetic variation obtained in nature? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is genetic recombination? |
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Definition
| Genetic Recombination is the exchange of genetic information in order to increase the genetic diversity of the population. Probably only with bacteria. |
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Term
pleitropy
One gene many ____
Baldness effects alot of other things |
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Definition
| Pleiotropy refers to the phenomenon in which a single gene controls several distinct, and seemingly unrelated, phenotypic effects. One gene effects multiple traits Eg gene determines color of the flower and the leaf |
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Term
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Definition
Polygenic inheritance is when a single trait is controlled by 2 or more sets of alleles.
Addative effect
multiple alleles for one phenotype
This explains how you can have several different phenotypes for one trait and how parents can have offspring with eye color or skin color different from what they have. |
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Term
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Definition
Gene at one locus effects the phenotype expression.
widow's peak masked by the baldness gene. |
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Term
linkage
Linked at the hip |
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Definition
| Genetic linkage is when two particular genetic loci or alleles in a chromosome are close together and likely to be inherited together. |
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Term
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Definition
| Co-dominance is when both alleles are expressed separately. Human blood type is a good example of this. The A and B alleles are both expressed, so you get the AB blood type. |
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Term
| What is the effect of the environment on gene expression |
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Definition
certain environmental conditions can cause mutations which is and adaptation of the conditions or a side effect
1. studying clown fish; males will change into females when there are no females present for breeding |
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Term
| Know how to find the gametes of any individual. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Incomplete dominance is a type of inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a combined phenotype (expressed physical trait).
For example, if you cross pollinate red and white snapdragon plants, the dominant allele that produces the red color is not completely dominant over the recessive allele that produces the white color. The resulting offspring are pink. |
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Term
| How are genetic recombinants produced? |
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Definition
| Crossing over and independent assortment |
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Term
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Definition
| The inactive X in each cell of a female. |
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Term
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Definition
is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division
When sperm and egg cells are being formed, the 23 pairs of chromosomes separate. So, say when an egg cell is forming, you wind up with 2 eggs with 23 chromosomes each. However, from time to time, the chromosomes don't split properly, and you wind up with an extra chromosome. So, suddenly, one of the egg cells has 2 X chromosomes instead of one. Then this egg gets fertilized by a sperm with a Y chromosome, meaning that the kitten is going to be a male, because the Y chromosome releases testosterone. But, this kitten also has 2 X chromosomes, meaning it is XXY. Because it has 2 X chromosomes, the male will have X-deactivation and they will have a calico color. In this case, they will be sterile, meaning that they will not be able to reproduce, because they have too many sex chromosomes and can't produce sperm properly. |
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Term
| What are some examples of sex-linked disorders in humans. |
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Definition
| Hemophilia, Turners syndrom, Red green color blindness |
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Term
| X-chromosome inactivation in humans and animals. Examples |
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Definition
Calico cats, Sweat glands in females they are all over the body in different patches.
X-deactivation. Females have 2 X-chromosomes in each cell. However, they only need one X chromosome per cell. So, in each and every cell, one X chromosome shuts off. Coat color in cats is on the X chromosome; so, in a calico cat, the black areas are where the orange X chromosome has shut off, and in the orange areas are where the black X chromosome have shut off. This is why calico cats are almost always female; because you have to have 2 X chromosomes for this to work. |
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Term
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Definition
| Removes a chromosomal segment |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| reverses a segment with in a chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosome transfers a fragment and retrieves a fragment in return. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosome has to many copies or not enough. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cell has more then two complete sets of chromosomes XXY |
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Term
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Definition
| Griffith's experiment, was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process called transformation |
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Term
| Hershey and Chase experiment |
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Definition
| showed that when bacteriophages, which are composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their protein does not. that helped to confirm that DNA was the genetic material. While DNA had been known to biologists since 1869,[2] a few scientists still assumed at the time that proteins carried the information for inheritance. |
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Term
| Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment |
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Definition
| Avery and his colleagues showed that DNA was the key component of Griffith's experiment, in which mice are injected with dead bacteria of one strain and live bacteria of another, and develop an infection of the dead strain's type. |
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Term
Meselson-Stahl experiments
Stahlen-> Create exact replicas |
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Definition
| that DNA replication was semiconservative. Semiconservative replication means that when the double stranded DNA helix was replicated, each of the two double stranded DNA helices consisted of one strand coming from the original helix and one newly synthesize |
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Term
| What is the difference between a DNA and an RNA molecule? |
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Definition
| DNA is double-stranded, whereas RNA is single-stranded. |
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Term
| You can tell that this is an image of a DNA nucleotide and not an RNA nucleotide because you see a _____ |
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Definition
| DNA ->sugar with two, and not three, oxygen atoms DNA nucleotides are composed of deoxyribose sugars, whereas RNA nucleotides are composed of ribose sugars. |
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Term
| Which of these nitrogenous bases is found in DNA but not in RNA? |
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Definition
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Term
| Nucleic acids are assembled in the _____ direction |
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Definition
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Term
| Short segments of newly synthesized DNA are joined into a continuous strand by _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| The first step in the replication of DNA is catalyzed by _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| The action of helicase creates _____ |
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Definition
| replication forks and replication bubbles |
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Term
| 9. Describe the DNA structure: distance between bases, number of bases per turn of the helix, pairing, purines, pyrimidines |
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Definition
| Each turn of DNA is made up of 10.4 nucleotide pairs and the center-to-center distance between adjacent nucleotide pairs is 3.4 nm. |
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Term
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Definition
Joins RNA nucleotides into a primer.... Synthesizes a single RNA Primer at the 5
Primase is an enzyme that creates a short RNA sequence, called a primer, on a DNA template strand so that DNA polymerase can make a copy of that DNA strand. |
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Term
| Single strand binding protein |
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Definition
| Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template. |
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Term
Chargaff’s rules
One for One |
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Definition
| In a DNA molecule, the ratio of pyrimidine to purine bases should be 1:1. Specifically, the amount of guanine (G) should be equal to that of cytosine (C), and the amount of adenine (A) should be equal to thymine (T). |
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Term
| How do you Transcribe a gene? |
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Definition
DNA is made up of two strands, the sense strand and the antisense strand. the sense strand contains the code for the protein so to get that code, the antisense strand is copied. the DNA is unzipped with the enzyme helicase and the antisense strand of the gene is copied with free nucleotides. They are then joined together with the enzyme polymerase and ligase to form an mRNA strand which leaves the nucleus.
This mRNA strand joins to the small subunit of a ribosme and then the large subunit is attached. Amino acids are attached to the amino accid binding site of the tRNA molecules by enzymes. the first amino acid moves into the A- site of the large subunit of the ribosome and the three bases which make up the anticodon form complementary base pairs with the codon of the mRNA. In the p-site the next tRNA molecule which is bonded to an amino acid forms complemtary base pairs with the next codon of the mRNA which is exposed by the p-site. The amino acids join together and the tRNA which is attaced now to bothe amino acids moves to the p-site and the tRNA that was in the p-site leaves the ribosome. This continues until the polypeptide chain is completed i.e when the ribosome reaches the end of the mRNA strand.
The polypeptide chain moves into the endoplasmic reticulum and then the Golgi apparatus where it is folded and organized into forming proteins which leave the cell in lysosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Protein synthesis starts in the nucleus, where the DNA is held. DNA structure is two chains of sugars and phosphates joined by pairs of nucleic acids; Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine. Similar to DNA replication, the DNA is "unzipped" by the enzyme helicase, leaving the single nucleotide chain open to be copied. RNA polymerase reads the DNA strand, and synthesizes a single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA). This single strand of mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores, and migrates into the cytoplasm where it joins with ribosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
Translation - the process of converting the mRNA codon sequences into an amino acid polypeptide chain.
1. Initiation - A ribosome attatches to the mRNA and starts to code at the FMet codon (usualy AUG, sometimes GUG or UUG).
2. Elongation - tRNA brings the corresponding amino acid to each codon as the ribosome moves down the mRNA strand.
Termination - Reading of the final mRNA codon (aka the STOP codon), which ends the synthesis of the peptide chain and releases it. |
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Term
What are transcription factors?
What is going to be transcried and what is not. |
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Definition
| Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and determine whether the DNA sequence is transcribed into mRNA (and then later into proteins). They are important because they regulate what proteins the cell is manufacturing. Proteins are the worker bees of a cell, so what kind of proteins (kind of worker bee) are being created determine how the cell is functioning and responding to external (or internal) signals (stimuli). |
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Term
| What are the functions of start and stop codons? give examples of them.? |
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Definition
The most common start codon is AUG, which codes for methionine, so most amino acid chains start with methionine.
The three stop codons : UAG , UGA , and UAA
Stop codons are also called termination codons and they signal release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome due to binding of release factors in the absence of tRNAs with anticodons complementary to these stop signals. |
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Term
| What is the genetic code? |
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Definition
| a genetic code is that specific sequence of genes as they align up on the different chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Introns are spliced out of primary RNA transcripts by a large structure called the spliceosome. The spliceosome does not move along the RNA but is assembled around each intron where it cuts and joins the RNA to remove the intron and connect the exons. This must be done many times on a typical primary transcript to produce the mature mRNA. |
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Term
| What are spliceosomes made of? |
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Definition
| The spliceosome is a complex of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and small nuclear protein (snRNP) molecules, snRNAs and snRNPs. snRNPs include U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6. |
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Term
| What is a ribozyme? And what is its role |
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Definition
| A ribozyme is an RNA molecule that is capable of catalyzing a chemical reaction. Prior to the discovery of ribozymes, the only known biological catalysts were proteins called enzymes. |
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Term
| What is the wobble hypothesis? |
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Definition
| 1966, Francis Crick proposed the Wobble hypothesis. Wobble hypothesis states that during translation, if the 3rd part of the codon is changed it is less likely that it will effect the protein that is produced. |
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Term
| What is the difference between tRNA, rRNA, mRNA |
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Definition
Messenger RNA or (mRNA) is RNA that carries information from DNA to the ribosome sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
trna and rrna are both involved in the translation
rrna synthesized in the nucleolusis the central component of the ribosome, the protein manufacturing machinery of all living cells. The function of the rRNA is to provide a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and to interact with the tRNAs during translation by providing peptidyl transferase activity.
trnathat transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. |
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Term
| Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcription and translation. |
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Definition
| In prokaryotes translation initiates while transcription is still taking place, i.e. the protein is being synthesised, at the same time as transcription. Also many ribosomes will be active on a single mRNA, while the mRNA is being synthesised. |
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Term
| What are signal peptides? |
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Definition
| he protein is guided to the ER by a signal-recognition particle (SRP), which moves between the ER and the cytoplasm |
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Term
What is the process of protein targeting?
Like a Target |
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Definition
| Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. |
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Term
point mutations
one point |
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Definition
| A point mutation, or single base substitution, is a type of mutation that causes the replacement of a single base nucleotide with another nucleotide of the genetic material, DNA or RNA. The term point mutation also includes insertions or deletions of a single base pair. |
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Term
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Definition
A mutagen is a natural or human-made agent (physical or chemical) which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA.
Smoking |
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Term
| Know biological macromolecules |
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Definition
Monomers are the basic bonds between hydrogen-oxygen
polymers are groups of monomers.
Macromolecules -> monomers
Lipids -> Fatty Acids A's
Carbs -> Monosaccharides
Nucleic Acids-> Nuclotide
Proteins -> Amino acids |
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Term
| Prokaryotic Vs Eukaryotic? |
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Definition
Prokaryotes:
-No nucleus
-no membrane bound organelles
Eukaryotes:
-nucleus
-membrane bound organelles
Both:
-RNA
-cell wall
-cytoplasm
-ribosomes
bacteria - prokaryotes
animals - eukaryotes
plants - eukaryotes
DNA - both |
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Term
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Definition
| They are named by adding a sufix ase ex lactase |
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Term
osmosis and diffusion
High to low Diffusion
Osmosis low to high |
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Definition
Passive - Facilitated no energy -> protein OSMOSIS H2O
Active transport -> ATP |
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Term
| Resperation Anarobic vs Aerobic |
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Definition
Aerobic -> ATP 38
Anarobic -> 4
Aerobic
Input:
1).glucose
2).oxygen
Output:
1).A large amount of energy
2).Carbon dioxide
3).Water
Anarobic
Input:
1).glucose
Output:
1).small amount of energy
2).lactic acid (in humans)
3).ethanol (in bacteria and yeasts)
4).carbon dioxide (in bacteria and yeasts) |
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Term
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Definition
pmat pmat
End results
four haploid daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
pmat
End result two daughter cells and therefore 2 nuclei |
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Term
| What is the suffix of suger |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| is defined as a group of similar organisms that can successfully mate and produce viable fertile offspring. |
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Term
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Definition
| Randome changes in the DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| can be defined as those individuals with the traits best suited for a particular environment survive and reproduce, leading to differential success in reproduction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance |
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Term
| The synthesis of a new strand begins with the synthesis of a(n) _____. |
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Definition
| RNA primer complementary to a preexisting DNA strand |
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Term
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Definition
| PCR is used to amplify DNA |
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Term
| A powerful way to identify an individual using a particular gene as a marker is the analysis of. |
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Definition
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Term
| Agrobacterium -> Tumefaciens How you put genes into a plant |
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Definition
| Tc- Tumor inducing plasmid |
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Term
| what would you use to study the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously |
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Definition
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Term
| How do you select the bacteria that contains the gene? |
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Definition
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Term
What are expression vectors?
What are they used for?
What do they have to have? |
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Definition
It contains an active promoter
Make proteins
Reporter Proteins |
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Term
What is Southern blot?
What is the purpose?
Northern is to detect |
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Definition
DNA hybridization you use a probe…. a small strand of dna/rna that is radio active
To find a specific gene.
The radio active proteins will attach to the DNA on the paper
RNA |
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Term
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Definition
| a localized group of individuals that belong to the same species. |
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Term
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Definition
| is a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in a nature. |
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Term
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Definition
is the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time.
Consists of all gene loci in all individuals of the population |
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Term
| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium |
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Definition
describes the constant frequency of alleles in such a gene pool
If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype |
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Term
| The Hardy-Weinberg (HW) principle describes |
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Definition
| a population that is not evolving. |
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Term
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Definition
| Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies brought about by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection below the species level. Over time, microevolution can translate into macroevolution, which is larger scale change above the species level |
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Term
| The Five assumptions of hardy weinberg |
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Definition
1. Large population. The population must be large to minimize random sampling errors.
2. Random mating. There is no mating preference. For example an AA male does not prefer an aa female.
3. No mutation. The alleles must not change.
4. No migration. Exchange of genes between the population and another population must not occur.
5. No natural selection. Natural selection must not favor any particular individual |
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Term
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Definition
Frequency of individuals in the US born with PKU: 1/10,000 births
q2 = 0.0001
q= square root of 0.0001 = 0.01
p = 1- q p= 1 - 0.01 = 0.99
What is the frequency of heterozygous individuals?
2pq = 2 x 0.99 x 0.01 = 0.0198
Therefore: (1.98 % of the U.S. population carries the PKU allele |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs when changes in gene frequencies from one generation to another occur because of chance events (sampling errors) that occur when populations are finite in size. |
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Term
Genetic drift: Founder effect
Found a small group FLDS |
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Definition
| a few individuals become isolated from a larger population Explains the relatively high frequency of certain inherited disorders among some populations Ellis Van Creveld syndrome -Polydactyly in the Amish population |
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Term
| Genetic Drift: the bottleneck effect |
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Definition
| occurs when the numbers of individuals in a larger population are drastically reduced by a disaster. |
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Term
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Definition
Is the movement of alleles among populations
Tends to reduce genetic differences between populations
Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population
application of insecticides against mosquitos (West Nile virus) flow of insecticide resistant alleles increase in fitness |
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Term
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Definition
Natural selection: environmental conditions determine which individuals in a population produce the most offspring.
Natural selection is the only agent that results in adaptive evolutionary changes |
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Term
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Definition
| Most species exhibit geographic variation, differences between gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups |
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Term
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Definition
Geographic variation in the form of graded change in a trait along a geographic axis
Cold weather populations tend to have relatively larger chests and shorter arms than do people from warm areas. Among the cold-adapted Inuit, such as this Alaskan woman, short limbs and stocky bodies help conserve heat. |
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Term
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Definition
phenotype with greater fitness usually increases in frequency Most fit is given a value of 1
Fitness is a combination of:
Survival: how long does an organism live
Mating success: how often it mates
Number of offspring per mating that survive
Reproductive success!!!!!! |
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Term
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Definition
| is natural selection for mating success can result in sexual dimorphism |
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Term
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Definition
| Iis competition among individuals of one sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex |
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Term
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Definition
| maintains genetic variation in the form of hidden recessive alleles |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population (example: frequency dependent selection) |
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Term
| Negative frequency-dependent selection |
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Definition
gives an advantage to rare phenotypes. It occurs when the reproductive success of any one morph declines if that phenotype becomes too common in the population.
Example: host-parasite between clones of aquatic snails and a parasitic worm.
The common snail clones suffer higher infection rates than the least common clone |
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Term
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Definition
occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both homozygotes
Natural selection will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus
The sickle-cell allele causes mutations in hemoglobin but also confers malaria resistance |
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Term
Speciation
New Species ALIAN |
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Definition
| is the keystone process in the origination of a new species |
|
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Term
| biological species concept |
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Definition
states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations
Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype of a population together |
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Term
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Definition
block fertilization from occurring by:
Impeding different species from attempting to mate
Preventing the successful completion of mating
Hindering fertilization if mating is successful |
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Term
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Definition
| . Two organisms that use different habitats even in the same geographic area are unlikely to encounter each other to even attempt mating. |
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Term
| Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers isolate the gene pools of biological species |
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Definition
No single barrier may be completely impenetrable to genetic exchange, but many species are genetically sequestered by multiple barriers.
Typically, these barriers are intrinsic to the organisms, not simple geographic separation.
Reproductive isolation prevents populations belonging to different species from interbreeding, even if their ranges overlap.
Reproductive barriers can be categorized as prezygotic or postzygotic, depending on whether they function before or after the formation of zygotes. |
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Term
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Definition
| For example, ranges of the western spotted skunk and the eastern spotted skunk overlap, they do not interbreed because the former mates in late summer and the latter in late winter. |
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Term
Prezygotic barriers mechanical isolation
A poodle and a great dain |
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Definition
| Closely related species may attempt to mate but fail because they are anatomically incompatible and transfer of sperm is not possible. With many insects the male and female copulatory organs of closely related species do not fit together, preventing sperm transfer |
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Term
| Prezygotic barriers gametic isolation |
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Definition
occurs when gametes of two species do not form a zygote because of incompatibilities preventing fusion or other mechanisms.
molecular recognition mechanism enables a flower to discriminate between pollen of the same species and pollen of a different species. |
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Term
| Post-zygotic barriers reduced hybrid viability |
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Definition
Genetic incompatibility between the two species may abort the development of the hybrid at some embryonic stage or produce frail offspring.
This is true for the occasional hybrids between frogs in the genus Rana, or in hybrids of the salamander of the genus Ensatina which do not complete development and those that do are frail. |
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Term
| Reduced hybrid fertility. |
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Definition
Even if the hybrid offspring are vigorous, the hybrids may be infertile and the hybrid cannot backbreed with either parental species.
Mule |
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Term
|
Definition
In some cases, first generation hybrids are viable and fertile.
However, when they mate with either parent species or with each other, the next generation is feeble or sterile.
Example: different cotton species can produce fertile hybrids, but breakdown occurs in the next generation when offspring of hybrids die as seeds or grow into weak and defective plants. |
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Term
In allopatric speciation
Patric is in aloe and cant get out |
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Definition
| , geographic separation of populations restricts gene flow. The valley of the Grand Canyon is a significant barrier for ground squirrels which have speciated on opposite sides, but birds which can move freely have no barrier. |
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Term
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Definition
| speciation occurs in geographically overlapping populations when biological factors, such as chromosomal changes and nonrandom mating, reduce gene flow. |
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Term
| In plants, sympatric speciation can result in |
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Definition
| can result from accidents during cell division that result in extra sets of chromosomes, a mutant condition known as polyploidy. |
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|
Term
autopolyploid
Auto meaning i can reproduce with it self and other like it.
Poly meaning many 4n
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Definition
| An individual can have more that two sets of chromosomes from a single species if a failure in meiosis results in a tetraploid (4n) individual. This________ mutant can reproduce with itself (self-pollination) or with other tetraploids. It cannot mate with diploids from the original population, because of abnormal meiosis by the triploid hybrids. |
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Term
|
Definition
One mechanism for allopolyoid speciation in plants involves several cross-pollination events between two species of their offspring and perhaps a failure of meiotic disjunction to a viable fertile hybrid whose chromosome number is the sum of the chromosomes in the two parent species.
For example, oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and wheat are polyploid. |
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Term
| reinforcement of barriers |
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Definition
The reinforcement of barriers occurs when hybrids are less fit than the parent species
Over time, the rate of hybridization decreases
Where reinforcement occurs, reproductive barriers should be stronger for sympatric than allopatric species |
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Term
punctuated equilibrium model
Gradualism is wrong. |
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Definition
Punctuated equilibrium is probably more accurate
In the punctuated equilibrium model, the tempo of speciation is not constant.
There is not one point of seperation during evolution it punctuated |
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Term
Adaptive radiation
Rapid increase of zombies and different forms of them. |
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Definition
| is rapid evolutionary radiation. It is an increase in the number and diversity of species within each lineage. |
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