1. to learn research process

2. to become a critical consumer of info

3. to develop critical and analytic thinking 

4. critically read a research article 

5. admission into graduate program 

1. collection of facts 

2. use of experimentation

3. theories 

4. hypothesis 

5. falsifiability 

statements of apparent relationships among observed events from which we come up with explanations and predictions 

a good theory allows us to predict behavior 

specific general reasoning process 

(still used today when we generalize from specific experiments to a general theory) 

general to specific reasoning process 

(involving hypothesis from a theory) 

research programs 

scientific progress is the stready build up of experimental knowledge 

(experimental control is used to decrease error) 

a body of knowledge that masquerades as science 

purports to be scientific but is biased on nonscience methodology 

(ESP, astrology, fortune telling) 

1. relies on data obtained through systematic empirical observation 

2. allows us to make objective observations independent of opinion, bias, and prejudice 

3. allows us to establish the superiority of ones beliefs over another 

4. DOES NOT ALLOW US TO PROVE THINGS 

What are the characteristics of the scientific approach? 

1. control

2. opertationalism 

3. replication

reproduction of results 

(by intergroup observations, intersubject observations, intrasubject observations) 

1. effects do not exist 

2. replication of study wasn't perfect 

1. describe the variables 

2. predict 

3. explain/ understand this identifying causes 

4. control 

1. laws of behavior are knowable and discoverable 

2. all sciences assumes that there are underlying realities to their topic of study that can be revealed through scientific analysis 

3. models can be formed to organize findings into a cohesive structure of knowledge 

How do you apply the scientific process? 

1. review lit

2. identify a problem for research 

3. form a research question

4. develop an experimental design

5. conduct experiment 

6. analyze data and interpret results 

7. communicate findings 

Parts of an article 

Title page (short and descriptive of IV and DV)

Abstract (allows us to survey the contents of an article)

Intro (specifies problem under investigation, lit review, hypothesis)

Method (describes detail operations performed by experiementer) 

Results (analysis of data and inferential stats)

Discussion (restate data in words, connect back to big picture) 

references 

1. defining a problem 

2. examining previous research in area 

3. suggesting a reasonable explanation for the problem

4. collecting and analyzing data 

5. analyze assumptions 

6. draw conclusions 

7. consider alternative explanations 

8. disseminate results 

based on previous research 

can be replicated 

is generalizable 

is based on some longical rationale and tried to theory

is doable 

generates new questions 

incremental 

an apolitical activity that is undertaken for the betterment of society

1. variables in the problem should express a causal relationship 

2. the problem should be stated in question form 

3. the problem statement should be such as to be able to be measured empirically 

1. honesty (convey info truthfully and honoring commitments)

2. Accuracy (reporting findings precisely and taking care to avoid errors)

3. efficiency (using resources wisely and avoiding waste)

4. objectivity (letting the facts speak for themselves and avoiding improper bias) 

DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION

assess strength of relationship, generate predictions, goal is to determine what other factors 

allow you to take information from a smaller sample and make inferences about a larger population 

(quan not qual) 

purpose is to discover cause and effect (effect is what happens when treatment is administered)

1. cause must precede effect 

2. cause is related to effect 

3. no plausible alternative explanation must exist for the effect other then the cause 

precise variation of one or more variables of the experimenter's choosing 

not every variable can be manipulated 

artificiality (after everthing else is controlled it removes phenomena from how they occur in the real world) 

experimental research study conducted in a real life setting 

(generalizability increases but control decreases)

the experimenter is able to control or eliminate the influence of extraneous variables 

(artificiality increases but error decreases) 

• a model for conceiving some natural process 
• pulls together seemingly different things  
• leads to successful predicitons and explanations 

There is only one level of IV for each group 

(example: a control group and a treatment group)

variables that can only take a finite number of values 

qualitative 

no decimals 

variables that can take on any value in a certain range 

can have decimals 

ex. height/ weight 

1. be able to manipulate 

2. have two forms (present v. absent, amount of variable, type)

Types of manipulations used in experiments: 

1. different instructions 

2. event manipulations (exposing different individuals to different events)

3. individual difference manipulation (IV is vared by selecting participants that differ in terms of internal state) 

reliability CAN exist without validity 

validity CANNOT exist without reliability 

1. number of research participants (the bigger N the smaller the error)

2. reliability of identifying the type of participant needed for study)

3. characteristics of researchers 

4. ability of the researcher (procedures should be constant)

error introduced in the measurement of behavior 

decreases reliability

because of researcher, enviornment, equiptment 

successive measurement (test, retest, equivalent forms)

simultaneous measurement (interrator reliability, interrator agreement) 

internal consistency (split-half, Cronbach's alpha) 

( assesement of adequacy of the statistical tests and conclusions about the null)

unreliable measures (DV). didnt measure what it should

violations of statistical assumptions. think data should have looked like something 

(avoid by: ensure sufficient participants, adhere to all assumptions of statisitical tests) 

confounding extraneous variables 

history

maturation 

selection (nonrandom, etc.)

testing

instrumentation problems

regression towards mean

mortality (systematic nonrandom loss of subjects)

interaction effects 

(to avoid: hold all other influences constant) 

validity of the operationalization of a given construct 

1. having a clear definition of constructs of interest 

2. carefully selecting instances that match the construct (prototypical ones are best) 

3. multiple members 

reactivity to experimental situation 

demand characteristics (people like to view themselves in the most popular light)

experimenter effects (unaware)

experiementer attributes 

experimenter expectancies 

1. homogenize subjects with regard to all potential confounds

2. increase accuracy of measurement of DV 

3. use counterbalancing to control for sequencing effects 

4. control nuisance variables by elimination, hold constant, measure and control statisically 

How to deal with threats from participants:

1. double blind placebo model 

2. blind experimenter technique 

3. deception 

4. manipulation check and post experiemtnal interviews 

5. automation

1. design must answer research question and test hypothesis 

2. extraneous variables are controlled for

3. able to generalize 

**1 MUST be achieved by all studies, but 2 and 3 are never completely achieved by a single study

H₀ 

There is NO difference between groups 

BAD

H₁ 

There is a difference between groups 

probability is α (.05 in psych) 

When null is true but you reject it 

so you say there is likely a real difference between groups but truth is that there is no real difference 

probability is β 

Null is false but you fail to reject null 

So you say there is likely no difference but the truth is that there is a real difference 

1. make inferences about populations based on sample size 

2. analyze cause and effect