- offer of small reward is insufficient justification for counterattitudinal behavior

- if reasons for engaging in counterattitudinal behavior are strong, little or no dissonance will be generated

- the weaker the reasons for acting inconsistently with ones attitude, the greater the internal pressure to change the attitude in question

      -to experience dissonance, people must freely choose to behave counterattitudinally

-attitudes are changed by behaviors for which we feel responsible

-if not responsible, there is sufficient justification

-Dissonance and the self-concept

-dissonance arises only when people see their actions as conflicting with their normally positive view of themselves

-threat to self-concept

-reasonable, moral, and smart

- tendency to increase liking of something we have worked hard to attain

-aronson and mills

-the harder the screening, the more students reported enjoyment of discussion group

- Daryl Bem

- Behavior causes us to form attitudes and can lead us to change them

-Facial feedback theory of emotion

- change in behavior changes mood

-no need to postulate a drive to account for how behavior changes attitudes

- we infer our attitudes from our behavior and the situation in which the behavior occurs

-when we form attitudes, we function like an observer

-closely observe past actions

-attribute them to internal or external sources

-if we attribute actions internally, this leads to attitude formation

Social Power

- The force available to the influencer to motivate attitude or behavior change

-can originate from:

-having access to certain resources due to social postition

-being liked, admired, respected

-allows the individual to act more readily

-be less dependent on others

-loosen grip of social norms

-exert influence on their situations

-ignore or pay less attention to others viewpoints

- Yielding to perceived group pressure by copying the behavior and beliefs of others

- publicly going along with a direct request to avoid punishment or gain reward

-in contrast to agreement with social pressure or direct request

- the performance of an action in response to a direct order

-usually from a person of high status or authority

-implies a loss of personal freedom

- muzafew sherif

-a group is more than the sum of its individual members non-group thinking

-when faced with uncertainty about how to interpret or judge events, we are influenced by others when they appear confident

-we are likely to conform to their view of reality and use it to render judgements even in their absence

-Solomon Asch

-Effects of perceived pressure to conform

-75% of subjects conformed to incorrect responses on at least 1/12 trials

-subjects conformed in 37% of trials

-individuals can be induced to forgo what their own eyes tell them and conform to the incorrect judgement of others

Group size

- factor influenced by conformity

- campbell and fairey

-group size is important when judgements are easy

- size of groups is unimportant when judgements are difficult

- factor influenced by conformity

- social support reduces conformity by diminishing the groups normative influence

-almost any dissent can reduce conformity

-breaking social consensus is crucial factor

-early support for dissent is more potent than support after normative pressures have built up

- if suport is later removed, normative influence is restored

- factor influencing conformity

-when we are privately self aware, we tend to act in line with our personal standards

-social standards are more influential when we are publicly self aware

-private self awareness reduces conformity while public self awareness increases conformity

- factor influencing conformity

-junior members of groups more likely to conform

- factor influencing conformity

-people conform more when they must respond out loud than when they write their answers

- factor influencing conformity

-once a commitment is expressed,people are less likely to conform to conflicting pressures

- factor influencing conformity

- in individualist cultures, it is not desirable to be recognized as a conformist

-assessments of impressions members of individualist cultures are making on others underlie conformity and independence statements

- i am non conformist can be stated in order to conform to social expectations of what kind of person im supposed to be

Informational social influence

- gain accurate informations

- we look to the group for information, especially if we doubt our own judgement

- gain rewards or avoid punishments from another peron or group

- conforming to normative pressure

-fear of negative evaluation, humiliation

- lifelong process of shaping an individuals behavior patterns, values, standards, skills,attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

- agents of socialization:

- parents, peers, schools, medial, religious institutions

Dissent

- how do others react when individuals fail to conform, and instead dissent from group norms?

- non conformists are the focus of social pressure until others are convinced its fruitless

- rejection by the group is most likely when there are only one or two non conformists rather than a more substantial number

- group members are least likely to tolerate dissent when dissent:

- involves an important group value

-is expressed in an intergroup context

- airing firty laundry is seen as ultimate sign of disloyalty to the group and oftern leads to very harsh judgements by the majority

- process by which dissenters produce change within a group

- those who dissent from majority are often seen as competent but are disliked

- often results in social isolation

-can result in hesitation in voicing opinions

- single minorities are more influential than double minorities

- single:

differ from the majority only in terms of their beliefs

-heterosexual arguing equal rights for gay people

- double:

- those who differ from the majority in terms of beliefs and group membership

- gay person arguing equal rights for gay people

- those arguing in the direction of evolving norms are more influential than those against

- style of behavior in presenting non conforming views is most important factor in determining effectiveness

- opinions stated repeatedly, consistently, confidently

- a consisten minority can effect overt responses in the majority

- a unified minority can cause majority members to alter private beliefs

- the performance of an action in response to a direct order

- usually from a person of high status or authority

- implies a loss of personal freedom

- we are taught from childhood to obey authority figures

- obediance to higher status indviduals is seen as sign of maturity

- effects of punishment on learning

-two subjects randomly chosen

-learner must learn correct pair of words

-teacher must deliver electric shocks of increasing intensity with each wrong answer

-learner mentions heart condition

-teacher gets sample shock

-15 volts (slight shock)

-450 volts (XXX)

-grunts up to 105 volts

-shouts at 120 volts

-demands to be let go at 150 volts

-screams at 270 volts

-screams and refuses to answer any further at 300 volts

-silence from 345 volts on

1. Victims emotional distance

-greatest obedience when learner could not be seen or heard

- when in the same room: 40% fully obeyed

- when required to force hand onto shock plate: 30%

2. Closeness and legitimacy of authority

- when experimenter present by telephone: 21%

- when a clerk substitued for experimenter: 20%

1. Institutional authority

- when done at low-status building: 48%

2. Group Influence

- when confederates defied the experimenter :10%

3. Perceived responsibility

- When subject performed an ancillary task rather than directly administering the shock: 93%

- Orne and holland

- milgrams paradigm lacked ecological validity

-rationale for shocking learners not convincing

- subjects likely did not believe they were truly doing harm

- responded to demand characteristics of the situation by playing a role

- Sheridan and king (puppy replication)

- shock generator, gave 3 real levels of shock

- foot flexion and barks

-running and vocalizing

- continuous barking and howling

- subjects could see the puppy in its shuttle box

- equal numbers of male and female subjects

-undergrads taking intro psych

-Brehm and Brehm

- freedom

- concrete behavioral reality for a given individual

- ability to engage in the behavior

- knowledge that he may engage in that behavior

- threat to or loss of a freedom provokes the person to become motivated to restore that freedom, and to act in various ways in the attempt to do so

• Freedoms vary in terms of:

1. strength

• strong doubt to complete conviction

Scope

• absolute

The freedom exists in all situations

Conditional

• Availability of the freedom is limited to certain contexts

• reactance is greater when the belief that one possesses the freedom is strong than when it is weak
• reactance is greater in those contexts within which the freedom was clearly believed to be available that in those where it was not
• amount of reactance that will be aroused is determined by the importance of the freedom that is threatened.

- Persons own choice of one alternative over another

- another explanation for post- decisional regret

-pressure on self to act or decide

- energizes the person to regain lost freedoms

- makes the threatened freedom or its outcome more attractive

- engenders hostility toward the agent of threat or deprivation

- increases feelings of self-direction or propulsion toward the goal of restoration

-redoubles efforts to preserve other freedoms and avoid potential threats to those freedoms

1. positive mood

- more likely to engage in a range of behaviors, such as granting requests

- less likely to critically analyze events

- pleasant moods activate pleasant thoughts and memories, which makes people feel more favorable toward those making requests

-expectation that one should return a favor or a good deed

- recipients feel obligated to comply with forthcoming requests

- commonly used in making sales

-free samples

- professional benefits

-commonly used in making donation requests

-free gifts

- allows us to decide if request is reasonable

-but people tend to comply more regardless of the reason given

- satisfies our desire to explain others actions

-more likelyn to seek explanation for behavior when it runs counter to social norms

- cutting someone in line

- obtain complance with a small request then follow it up with larger, less desirable request

- fairly reliable in securing compliance

- granting or rejecting a request changes attitude

-rejecting initial small request leads to formation of negative attitude toward granting that type of request, thus larger request will also be rejected

-accepting initial request leads us to see ourselves as cooperative, so we will grant larger request

- Make a very large request then make a request that is much less costly

-securing second request was initial objective of unfluencer from the start

- phone solicitors

-negotiating contracts

-to work, requires

-short timeframe

-same requestor

-no negative self inferences

- understate true cost, the once compliance is obtained reveal the true cost

- once people make a decision, they tend to justify it by thinking of positive aspects

-become increasingly committed and more resistant to changing their minds

- car salesman disclosing hidden costs at last minute of deal

-requires time to develop committment and increase perceived cost of refusal

- Intentionally attempting to lastingly change attitudes through transmission of a message

- Petty and Cacioppo

- Path to persuasion

- Individual is influenced by the strength and quality of the argument

- argument must be strong to be persuasive

- occurs when the target is motivated and able to think carefully about the issue

- Path to persuasion

- individual is influenced by irrelevant cues to content or quality of the communication

- target is unmotivated or unable to think carefully about the issue

-strength of argument doesnt matter

- familiarity, ease of understanding, qualities of the communicator determine persuasive effects

- attitudes are formed or changed quickly and with little thought

1. Communicator
2. Message Content
3. Communication Channel
4. Audience

- attractiveness and likability

-physical appeal

- similarity

- attitudes

-values

- backgrounds

- appearance

Qualitites of the Communicator

- credibility

- perceived expertise

• say things the audience agrees with
• be introduced as knowledgeable
• speak confidently

- perceived trustworthiness

• look the audience in the eye
• convey that you are not trying to persuade
• argue against your own self interest
• talk fast

- highly credible communicators are more persuasive immediately after presenting a message than less credible communicators

- but over time the credibility gap weakens

- low credibility sources are forgotten and individual is influenced bycontent alone

- magnitude of the effect depends on strength of the cue to discount the message

- stronger low credibility message, greater sleeper effect

- Message must be convincing and lead to persuasion

- people are able and motivated to elaborate on message prior to the discounting cue

people are given information discounting credibilty following persuasive message, not before

- more effective with those who do not have an established attitude

- those who are less motivated to engage with the specifics of the argument

- more effective with those who initially disagree

- those who exposed to or aware of opposing views

- pessimists

- suggests communicator is fair-minded, increasing trustworthiness

- inoculates people against opposing views

- More persuasive when messages are close together in time

-John is intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious

- John is envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent

- more persuasive when enough time separates the two messages to allow for forgetting

- audience commits itself soon after the second message

- more powerful when person is well educated or analytic

- audience is interested, involved

-attitude originially formed based on reason

- emotion is more powerful when person is less educated or analytic

- audience is less involved, interested

- attitude originally formed is based on emotion

- When feeling highly vulnerable to a threat people are more susceptible to persuasion

-we do not critcally analyze the recommended actions oterhs offer us to avoid danger

- strong desire to believe that a situation can by avoided places great power in hands of those offering solutions

- fear appeals fail when

-fear is weak

- no means of avoiding the bad outcome available

- fear appeals work when

- fear is strong

- trying to prevent a bad outcome

- people believe they can avoid the bad outcome

- humor increases attention to the message

- people are more likely to listen to someone trying to make them laugh

- humore may interefere with comprehension of the listener

-may direct attention away from persuasive content

- more effective if humor is relevant to the message

- helps people manage fewar-inducing messages

-allows them to more effectively process the message

- active experience or passive reception

- passively received messages

•  increase familarity
• increase fluency

-active experience

• more potent when the topic is significant and familar
• more stable and enduring