1.     What is a "receptor site" and where is it found?

a.      Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones

1.     What is the difference between and neuron and a nerve?

a.      Neurons: an individual nerve cell

b.     Nerve: a bundle of neuron fibers

1.     Distinguish between the functioning of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 

a.      Sympathetic branch: “emergency” system. Prepares body for “fight or flight” during times of danger or high emotion

b.     Parasympathetic branch: quiets the body and returns it to a lower level of arousal

1.     What are the differences between the CT scan, the MRI scan and the PET scan?

a.      CT: specialized type of X-ray that gives an image of the brain

b.     Magnetic resonance imaging: uses a very strong magnetic field, rather than X-rays, to produce an image of the brain

c.      PET: detects positrons (subatomic particles) based on glucose consumption in the brain. Computer-generated of the brain

1.     Describe the symptoms of spatial neglect and indicate the region of the brain involved in this                          disorder.

a.      Spacial neglect: a problem caused by damage to a cerebral hemisphere. For example, right hemisphere damage; They will pay no attention to the left side of visual space and not eat food on the left side of a plate

1.     Based on the results of the split brain operation, what do we know about the functions of the right and left hemispheres?

a.      Each hemisphere has its own separate perceptions, concepts, and impulses to act

b.     One side of the brain will want to get dressed whereas the other one doesn’t, so he’s simultaneously pulling his pants up and down with each hand

1.     Where is the pituitary gland located and what is its function?

a.      Pituitary gland: the “master gland” whose hormones influence other endocrine glands. Located above the hypothalamus

1.     What are the functions of the limbic system?

1.     What is the function of melatonin and what is the name of the gland that secretes this hormone?

a.      Melatonin: more = sleepy. Pineal gland.

1.     Where is sleep hormone found and what is its function?

a.      Sleep hormone: a sleep promoting substance found in the brain and spinal cord

1.     Which stage of sleep is associated with an increase in activity in areas of the brain associated with emotion and visual imagery?

a.      REM sleep

1.     What is the difference between a dream during REM sleep and one during non-REM sleep?

a.     NREM sleep is 90% of the time dream free. Lots of thoughts and images occur

b.     REM sleep are vivid dreams

                                               i.     Tend to be longer, clearer, more detailed, more bizarre, more “dream-like”

1.     What is REM behavior disorder and what causes it?

a.      A lack of muscle paralysis so they thrash violently and do crazy shit

1.     Why is it not a good idea to take sleeping pills for insomnia?

a.      They lose sleep quality

1.     What alternatives to sleeping pills are used to treat insomnia?

a.      Sitmulus control:

                                               i.     Insisting on a regular schedule helps establish a firm body rhythm, greatly improving sleep

b.     Sleep restriction:

                                               i.     If you lose a nights sleep, its important to still go to sleep on your regular schedule

c.      Paradoxical intention:

                                               i.     Remove the pressures of trying to go to sleep and instead keep them awake as long as possible. Sleep will come unexpectedly and reduces performance anxiety

d.     Relaxation: relax

e.      Food intake: eat turkey n shit like tryptophan and baked POTATOES

f.       Stimulants: no stimulants yo

1.     What is sleep apnea and what causes it?

a.      Sleep apnea: breathing stops for 20 seconds to 2 minutes then they wake up and breathe and go back to sleep. Happens hundreds of times

1.     What is SIDS? What causes it and how is it treated?

a.     Sudden infant death syndrome. Sleep apnea is suspected. A monitor will make noises when the baby is gonna die n shit

a.      Unconditioned stimulus:

                                               i.     A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response

b.     Neutral stimulus:

                                               i.     A stimulus that does not evoke a response

c.      Conditioned stimulus:

                                               i.     A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

1.     Classical conditioning alters expectancies. Explain.

a.      A form of learning which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli

1.     What are the major differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

a.      Classical conditioning:

                                               i.     A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli

b.     Operant conditioning:

                                               i.     Learning based on the consequences of responding

1.     What is the partial reinforcement effect?

a.      Partial reinforcement:

                                               i.     Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction

1.     Define the following reinforcement schedules and give an example of each based on real life experiences (as opposed to rat experiments): fixed ratio, variable ratio.

a.      Fixed ratio:

                                               i.     A set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer

1.     A reinforcer is given for every four correct responses

b.     Variable ratio:

                                               i.     A varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer.

1.     Given after 3-7 correct responses

1.     What are the major drawbacks and side effects of punishment?

a.      People and situations associated with punishment tend, through classical conditioning, to become feared, resented, or disliked

b.     Escape learning:

                                               i.     learn to make response to end an aversive stimulus

c.      Avoidance learning:

                                               i.     Making a response to postpone or prevent discomfort

d.     Aggression:

                                               i.     Punishment increases aggression

1.     If you must use punishment, what are the six rules you should follow?

a.      Avoid harsh punishment

b.     Use the minimum punishment necessary to suppress misbehavior

c.      Apply punishment during, or immediately after, misbehavior

d.     Be consistent

e.      Use counter conditioning

f.       Expect anger from a punished person

g.     Punish with kindness and respect

1.     Some children copy the violence they see on television, though most do not. What belief is embraced by those who do?

a.     They don’t fully recognize that media characters and stories are fantasies

1.     result of deficits in the functioning of regions of the brain that control consciousness and dreaming

How do neurologists know if someone is dreaming or not?

1.    All three measures use electrodes (small medal plates). The signals from the electrodes are amplified and sent to a polygraph, which plots time against amplitude (see next slide).

1.    EEG (electroencephalogram): Brain waves recorded from the scalp. 

1.    EMG (electromyogram): Measures muscle activity in the forehead.

1.    EOG (electroculogram): Measures eye movements.

1.    Beta waves in the EEG.

1.    Muscle paralysis (measure by the EMG) when dreaming

1.    Rapid eye movements (measured with the EOG) when dreaming

What are the two major stages of sleep? 

1. S-Sleep (non-REM sleep)
1. Stage 1
2. Stage 2
3. Stage 3
4. Stage 4
2. D-sleep (REM sleep)

1. What is being measured by the EEG. That is, what produces the brain waves?

The EEG monitors activity of neurons in the cerebral cortex, which is the outer 2-3 mm of the cerebral hemispheres. 

1.     The two cerebral hemispheres (also called the forebrain) serve as the cap of the mushroom; the cerebral hemispheres rest on a stem called the brainstem

1.     The cerebral hemispheres contain neurons involved in complex functioning such as sensory perception, cognition, thinking, and the production and expression of language. The outer layer (2-3mm)of the cerebral hemispheres is called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral hemispheres are the seat of consciousness.  We are consciously aware of the outside world and ourselves because of the activity (nerve impulses and secretion of synaptic transmitters) of neurons in the cerebral hemispheres

The regulation of sleep and wakefulness by signals sent to the cerebral hemispheres, control of respiration, control of internal organs such as the heart and organs of the digestive system

 According to compensatory theory of narcolepsy there are two areas of the brain involved in narcolepsy. What are they? 

How does the brain control wakefulness? 

Circadian Rhythm: Daily (24 hour) cyclical changes (increased activity following by rest) in bodily functions and activity in organs. 

Where are the cell bodies of the neurons of BIS, BAS, RAS, and NTS? 

Cell bodies: Brain stem

            Axon terminals and synapses: forebrain

Where are their axon terminals and where do they form synapses?

            Cell bodies: Brain stem

            Axon terminals and synapses: forebrain

What are:

RAS

BAS

BIS

1.    RAS:

a.     Controls activity (wakefulness) in the cerebral cortex

b.     Activation of neurons that carry sensory information such as touch, pain, hearing

2.    BAS:

a.     Cells of neurons located in Ventral Tegmental Area and axons connect to the nucleus accumbens

b.     When motivated to seek rewards in the presence of incentives

3.    BIS:

a.     Cell bodies located in locus coeruleus (amygdala); synaptic transmitter is norepinephrine

b.     Appraisal of threat that leads to fear or anxiety

4.    NTS:

a.     Sustained increase in blood pressure from exercise, stress, sitting in a hot tub, sitting in the sun

b.     A large meal

The 3 systems increase activity in the cerebral hemispheres and thus promote wakefulness. Is there a pathway that decreases conscious awareness and wakefulness (as would be necessary to sleep)?

There are two types of synaptic transmitters: excitatory synaptic transmitters and inhibitory synaptic transmitters. 

1. Excitatory synaptic transmitters sends a chemical message that tells a neuron to produce nerve impulses.

a.     RAS, BAS, and BIS secrete excitatory transmitters

2. Inhibitory synaptic transmitters send a chemical message that tells a neuron to not produce nerve impulses.

a.     NTS secretes an inhibitory transmitter

1.    Wakefulness is dependent on the ratio of the level of activity in RAS, BAS and BIS to the level of activity in the NTS. Explain the ratio. 

a.     The lower the ratio, the sleepier. The higher the ratio, the more wakeful.

1.     The neurons of RAS, BAS and BIS become active automatically when you awake from sleeping. NTS neurons become active automatically when you have been awake for 16 hours. 

1.    Narcoleptics are deficient in orexin, which is involved in activation of the RAS, BAS and BIS neurons, so the NTS is often unopposed. Neurons that secrete the neurotransmitter orexin strongly excite RAS, BAS, and BIS neurons.

Excessive sleepiness is due to an unopposed NTS so eating, and elevations in blood pressure from exercise, sitting in the sun or emotional stress, all of which leads to the activation of NTS neurons, cause sleepiness

Orexin: promotes wakefulness and antagonizes the sleep-producing effects of the NTS. 

1.    What are the properties of S-Sleep (Non-REM) sleep? 

1. Properties of S-Sleep

1. Synchronized EEG (Alpha waves and delta waves)
2. Relaxed muscles (measured by EMG)
3. Low activity of neurons in the cerebral hemispheres
4. Static dreams (mentations), positive emotions
5. Sleep walking and sleep talking linked to static dreams (mentations)
6. 75-80% of sleep time

When do you see alpha waves and when do you see delta waves in the EEG? Do you ever see these waves when the individual is awake? What are beta waves and when do you see them? What type of EEG waves do you see when the individual is in a coma? 

a.     Alpha waves and delta: Alpha waves associated with relaxed wakefulness.

b.     Delta: When you’re in deep sleep

c.      Beta waves: during dreaming and when you’re awake and attending to something or thinking about something

d.     In coma: Delta wave.

What are the properties of D-Sleep (REM Sleep)? 

a.     Desynchronized EEG (Beta waves)

b.     Rapid eye movement linked to dreaming [dream content and eye movement example]

c.      Dreaming (narrative dreams), negative emotions

d.     Anxiety nightmares

e.     Muscle paralysis

f.      High level of activity in neurons in the cerebral hemispheres

g.     20-25% of sleep time

a.     Do animals sleep and dream? How do homeotherms such as aquatic mammals (e.g. dolphins and whales) sleep and dream?

                                                                 i.     Homeotherms: regulate their own body temperature

                                                                ii.     Right hemisphere: control dreams

a.     Does everyone dream?

What happens to people who go a long time without sleep?

What kinds of deficits in functioning are observed in sleep-deprived individuals? Do they show symptoms of a paranoid psychosis? What is microsleep and what is its relationship to sleep debts?

a.     They will not function well

b.     No

c.      Microsleep: you go to sleep but for a very brief time. 30 seconds, a minute. But you are out – asleep.

d.     Sleep debt: if you sleep 5 hours a night and you need 8, you got a debt

1.     What are the signs of a sleep debt? (P)

a.     Short sleep latency: 2-3 minutes instead of 10-15 minutes

b.     NEED to ingest caffeine during the day

c.     Sleepy when bored rather than being annoyed

d.    Sleep triggered by a heavy meal, warm room, or low dose of alcohol

e.     Need an alarm clock to wake up in the morning

1.     What percentage of the population experience sleep debts?

a.     40% of the US

1.     What is Fatal familiar insomnia?

a.     Fatal: Dying

b.     Familiar: Runs in family

c.      Insomnia: Cant sleep

d.     Month after month after month without sleep and then die

1.     Discuss the symptoms of cataplexy and sleep paralysis in terms the paralysis that occurs during REM-Sleep.

a.     The dream generator also causes paralysis during dreaming by sending messages to neurons in a different part of the brainstem.

Hallucinogenic drugs such LSD increase activity in the dream generator (a waking dream)—called a hypnogogic hallucination.

a.     A dream results from increases in the activity of neurons in visual areas and the limbic system; these increases in neural activity are produced by nerve impulses sent by the dream generator to these two regions. This often leads to rapid eye movements.

b.    The activity in the limbic system underlies the emotional reaction during dreaming; these are usually negative emotions.

c.      The emotional reaction causes the muscles to become paralyzed due to a signal that is sent from the limbic system to the brainstem neurons that control movement. 

1.     Describe how the compensatory theory of narcolepsy accounts for the secondary symptoms of narcolepsy. 

Secondary symptoms result from the expression of components of REM sleep at inappropriate times; the dream generator is not functioning well. The dream generator is becoming active at inappropriate timesbecause raphe neurons are not secreting enough of the inhibitory synaptic transmitter serotonin

1.     Treatment of narcolepsy

a.     Symptoms of excessive sleepiness are treated by stimulants such as Ritalin, amphetamines (e.g., Dexedrine), or Adipex ; the increase in activity in the cerebral hemispheres is due to increased secretion of the synaptic transmitters dopamine (in BAS) and norepinephrine from the locus coeruleus (in BIS)

b.     Secondary symptoms are treated with antidepressant medications (e.g. SSRIs such as Prozac) because they increase serotonin activity, thereby inhibiting the dream generator.

1.     What is a psychoactive drug?

a.     Psychoactive drugs are ones that affect emotions, mood, arousal, sleep and wakefulness, motivation, or sensory perception.

1.     What is drug addiction? 

1.     Is drug addiction a type of behavioral addiction? 

1. Increased need to engage in the behavior
2. Inability to control the behavior (person feels compelled to engage in the behavior)
3. Restlessness and irritability when the person hasn’t engaged in the behavior for a while or is trying to stop the behavior
4. Turning to the behavior when under stress so as to escape from the negative emotions
5. Lying to family and friends about how much the person engages in the behavior so as to conceal the addiction
6. Placing relationships in jeopardy and job or school success in jeopardy.

1.     What does it mean to say a person is physically dependent on a drug? 

a.     When they stop taking a drug, such as alcohol, they show withdrawal symptoms, which are opposite to the effects produced by the drug. For example, being physically dependent on a stimulant such as amphetamine or cocaine means the person becomes depressed when they stop taking the drug. Sometimes withdrawal from a drug is life threatening, as with alcohol or barbiturates.

1. Dopamine and endogenous opiates

a.     Dopamine: Anticipatory pleasure (hopefulness) is the elevation of mood experienced when seeking a reward (On the way to a goal). It is associated with increased energy, enthusiasm, and approach motivation---- increased activity in the nucleus accumbens of BAS.(P)

Endogenous opiates (enkephalins and endorphins): Stimulating these receptors occurs when experiencing the reward itself (reaching the goal) particularly social rewards (e.g., being with friends). It is associated with low levels of energy, a “quiet” pleasure, calmness, serenity, and contentment. 

1.     What is the function of BAS projections to the prefrontal cortex?

a.     Facilitate functioning of the prefrontal cortex

1.     What is the most dangerous drug? (two answers)

a.     Alcohol: central nervous system depressant

b.     Methamphetamine: dangerous to physical and emotional

1. Decreased prefrontal cortex activity:

                                               i.     Poor judgment, little concern for long term consequences

                                              ii.     Do and say things that you normally wouldn’t due to acting at the automatic level of processing (limbic system)

2. Decreased BIS activity

                                               i.     No fear: do and say things that you normally wouldn’t. BAS dominates BIS.

1. The effortful control system can override the outcome of the competition. (BIS, BAS)

1. What other drugs have an effect that is similar to alcohol?

Alcohol is a sedative-hypnotic drug. Sedative-hypnotic drugs (CNS depressants). There are numerous sedative-hypnotic drugs including barbiturates (Seconol, Nembutal), various sleeping medications, and tranquillizers (Valium). 

Discuss the medical uses and health hazards of sedative-hypnotic drugs.

1. Medical uses (P)

                                              i.     Sedation before surgery and with highly aroused patients

                                            ii.     Sleeping medication

                                          iii.     Antianxiety medication

                                           iv.     Surgery

2. Health hazards (P)

                                              i.     Addiction

                                            ii.     Withdrawal symptoms and physical dependency

                                          iii.     Death from respiratory failure from overdose

                                           iv.     Tissue damage from long term use

                                             v.     Memory loss from tissue damage in the brain

                                           vi.     Poor judgment and disinhibition during driving

1. Methamphetamine is a strong stimulant.
2. Mild stimulants: caffeine, nicotine

Strong stimulants: amphetamines (e.g., Dexedrine, methamphetamine), cocaine, Ritalin, Adipex, Aderol. 

What motivates people to use stimulants (outside of legitimate medical uses)?

1. Mood elevation (anticipatory pleasure; hopefulness) from increase in dopamine in BAS
2. To stay awake and increase approach motivation and behavioral arousal
3. Truck drivers

College students in the 1960s 

Describe the medical uses of stimulants.

                                               i.     Treatment of narcolepsy

                                              ii.     Treatment of attention deficit disorder

1. Symptoms of ADD

1. Fails to give close attention to details, difficulty in sustaining attention, does not listen when spoken to directly, doesn’t follow through on instructions or finish schoolwork, chores or duties, difficulty in organizing tasks, avoids tasks requiring sustained attention, loses things necessary for tasks, forgetful, distractible.

1. What do stimulants do?

1. Dopamine of BAS and norepinephrine of the LC (locus coeruleus) activate neurons in the prefrontal cortex.
2. Both transmitters facilitate executive control by the prefrontal cortex

1. Reduced motivation (“burn out”) due to a decrease in brain dopamine from long term use (methamphetamine studies)
2. Paranoid psychosis (recall Peter Tripp)
3. Impulsive because approach motivation (BAS activity) is so high, BIS doesn’t stop behaviors that should be stopped (see next slide) and diminished effortful control

                                              i.     Doing and saying things that are self-destructive and destructive to interpersonal relationships

                                              ii.     Examples:

1.    Running up credit card charges

2.    Physical violence when frustrated

3.    Illicit or unprotected sex

4.    Reckless driving

Saying things (e.g., insulting remarks) that you would normally not say 

1. Methamphetamine: Second only to marijuana as most abused illicit (illegal) drug. Describe it.

20 hour “high”

Increase in dopamine secretion is 3.5 times that of cocaine and 6.0 times the one that occurs during sexual orgasm.

Takes at least a year for the brain to recover from damage done by methamphetamine (may be permanent damage). 

Discuss methamphetamine in terms of the Drug Triangle. 

1. Heavy secretion of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (BAS) causes BAS to dominate.

What do methamphetamine and other stimulants lead to an increase of?

 Dopamine. 

1. Which two drugs directly stimulate receptors in the brain (i.e. have their own receptors in the brain)?

1. Narcotic Analgesics (opiate derivatives): morphine, codeine, heroin, prescription pain relievers (Darvoset, Percoset, Oxycodone) 
2. Marijuana (Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol;  THC)

**Both are from plants: the opium poppy and the hemp plant (cannabis sativa) 

In terms of their effects on synaptic transmitters in the brain, how do narcotic analgesics (opiate derivatives) alter mood, arousal and behavior? 

1. Naturally occurring substances from the opium poppy that mimic the effects of enkephalins and endorphins                                             

Discuss the medical uses and health hazards of narcotic analgesics. 

1. Are the brains own pain killers when pain levels are extremely high

                                               i.     Relieve pain by mimicking the action of endogenous opiates

                                              ii.     Released when receiving a reward, particularly a social reward

Health hazards: addiction, respiratory failure from high doses, constipation 

1. What is the name of the neurotransmitter that is identical to THC?

                                               i.     Anandamide (the brain and body’s own marijuana)

The endocannabinoid system regulates the control of energy balance and peripheral metabolic processes. It modulates energy, intake, nutrient transport, fat and glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, and fat storage. THC (anandamide) receptors in this system are found in the brain, digestive system, and organs such as the liver. 

What is the function of THC receptors in the brain? 

1. In the hippocampus, which is associated with the storage of memories, it promotes forgetting. It also influences appetite.

Other characteristics of THC?

                                               i.     Change of consciousness but minor effect on mood

                                              ii.     Sensory areas of the brain affected—makes tastes, sounds, and colors seem more vivid, and attention- getting

                                            iii.     Reduction in working memory (short term memory)--- what you can keep in your mind (past memories, current circumstances) when thinking about something. (see next slide)

                                            iv.     “living in the present”

1. Working Memory: A temporary erasable memory in which information can be held in a state of moment-to-moment awareness. Its contents can include information gleaned from the senses regarding the current circumstances, the retrieval of stored memories, and the like. Its purpose is on-line processing. It is essential to the cognitive modification of behavior.

Which receptors are involved in the THC (marijuana) “high”?     

Probably the opiate “high”. The “high” associated with dopamine is energizing whereas the “high” associated with THC is characterized by calmness, relaxation, self-satisfaction, and contentment. The endocannabinoid system connects to the endogenous opiate system (e.g., in the relief of pain (

What are the health benefits of marijuana? 

                                               i.     Treatment of the eye disease glaucoma

                                              ii.     Increased appetite for chemotherapy and AIDS patients

                                            iii.     Reduced nausea for chemotherapy and AIDS patients

                                            iv.     Pain relief for chronic nerve pain

                                              v.     Anti-inflammatory effect (inflammation contributes to arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, and other diseases

                                            vi.     Kills cancer cells 

What medications are used to treat anxiety?

1. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Prozac. (P)
2. Increases serotonin, which decreases activity in BIS via inhibition, and hence is used to treat anxiety disorders such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder) (see next 2 slides).

Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by chronic excessive worrying about a number of events and activities accompanied by at least three of the following symptoms: (a) restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge; (b) a sense of being easily fatigued; (c) difficulty concentrating or mind going blank; (d) irritability; (e) muscle tension; (f) sleep disturbance.

Which medications are used to treat depression? Explain why they are effective.

1. Welbutrin

                                               i.     Increases secretion of dopamine in BAS

1.     Which behaviors are linked to low approach motivation (low BAS)?

a.     Low Dopamine

1.     What is the significance of the fact that she has a family history of depression?

a.     Strong genetic component

1.     What is the significance of the fact that she is high in neuroticism?

a.     Certain personalities are more likely to become depressed and anxious.

                                                                                                     i.     Neuroticism is one of them.

What neurochemical change is linked to low BAS activity? 

                                               i.     Low dopamine.

Depression was always triggered by a setback such as breaking up with a boyfriend, not receiving the promotion or raise that she had expected at work, or most recently when she was betrayed by her closest friend.

a.     When given the “Big five” personality assessment test she was found to have an extremely high score on the neuroticism dimension.

d.     Unconditioned response:

                                               i.     An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

e.      Conditioned response:

                                               i.     A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

c.      Fixed interval:

                                               i.     A reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response

1.     Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced

d.     Variable interval:

                                               i.     A reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforce response

1.     Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced