Paradigm

1) universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners

2) a complicated, interconnected mixture of theories, hypotheses, assumptions, etc

Normal Science

(pg. 5 & 10)

1) science we "do" within a paradigm; progress within a paradigm

2) puzzle- solving

3) the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all their time, is predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like

4) research, firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievments that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice

5) Goal: Normal Scientific research is directed to the articulation of those phenomena and theories that the paradigm already supplies

Mop-up Work

(pg. 24)

1) Mopping-up operations are what engage most scientists throughout their careers

2) extending the paradigm rather than challenging it

3) normal science

Problem-Solving

(pg. 36)

1) normal science

2) Once a paradigm is established, the day to day activity of most scientists aren't testing it in any real sense. Instead they are using it to frame paradigm bound questions. (Ex: "trying to understand how___ works", not "im testing the ___ model")

2) motivated by the challenge of the puzzle and the conviction that if one is skillful enough one will be able to solve a puzzle that has either never been solved or never been solved so well

Fact Gathering

(pg. 25)

1) the experiments and obserations described in the technical journals through which scientists inform their professional colleagues of the results of their contuing research

Anomaly

1) a violation of the "paradigm-induced expectations that govern normal science". (pg. 52-53) 

2) something that doesn't fit the data

3) detected through empirical analyses and the basis for most discoveries. Motivation for paradigm change within a field of study. 

Revolution/Paradigm Shift/Gestalt Shift

1) when the pile of anomallies gets too big we change the paradigm

2) illustrated by the Necker cube - different perspectives. 

3) when the profession can no longer evade anomalies that subvert the existing tradition of scientific practice - then begin the extraordinary investigations that lead the profession at last to a new set of commitments, a new basis for the practice of science (pg. 6)

4) the tradition-shattering complements to the tradition-bound activity of normal science (pg. 6)

The Cycle of Scientific Revolutions

Paradigm --> Normal Science --> Mop up work --> Fact gathering --> Puzzle making --> Mature science --> Anomaly --> Crisis --> Paradigm Resistance --> Revolution --> Paradigm Shift --> Paradigm

The Influence of Dualism on the Christian Church (3)

Dualism - a split vision worldview

1) How we view work- most of us are Christians AND ___ (doctors, teachers, etc). We don't engage in our daily tasks as Christians. This idea of being a "full time Christian worker" can only include missions or pastoral work.

2) How we view culture - Christians have trouble related the sacred to the secular. Typically react to culture in one of three ways; as second best in comparison to a life of faith, as an unavoidable evil, or as something to be fled

3) How we read the Bible - causes us to misinterpret the Bible and miss the message of redemption. ex: dualistic view that removes us from creation and places us in heaven - closes our eyes to the biblical vision of heaven coming to us

Birthday of Psychology

Structuralism - 1879 - Wundt

System

1) a school of thinkers

2) thinkers that share the same ideas and sometimes opposed to another group

3) tight knit systems of psychology and built their views around common beliefs and broad presuppositions (postulates)

Theory

1) Theory within the systems - a much narrower focus than the broad system

2) a formal statement of the assumed relationship of observed facts

3) testable and possible to be proven false or true

Hypothesis

1) making a hunch based theory, through testing and observation

2) use temporary words like "suggests", not proves" which allows for the hypothesis to be shown as false

3) when almost sure of truth, create a law

Law

1) when hypotheses are tested and found to be true, and the aspect of the assumption has been elminated, one may state that a basic principle or law has beene stablished. when considered well established, further testing is no longer needed

Basic Issues of Psychology

1) Mind vs. Body

2) Subjectivism vs. Objectivism

3) Quantification vs. Qualification

4) Reductionism vs. Nonreductionism

5) Molar vs. Molecular

6) Determinism vs. Teleology: and Free Will

7) Utility vs. Purity

8) Nativism vs. Empiricism

9) Theory vs. Data

Mind vs. Body

1) If there is both a mind and a body in both humans and animals, one must ask questions like how do the body and mental processes correlate, is there a connection between the two or not, is there a mind at all, etc. 

2) Deemed dualistic to think that both body and mind are part of psychology

3) Structuralism --> first psych system to evolve, thought both the mind and the body existed in a parallel relationship

4) Behaviorism --> Watson - believed there was no such thing as mind and the body reacted only to stimuli in the environment and shouldn't be included in psychology

5) Psychoanalysis (Freud) vs. Behaviorism (Watson)

Subjectivism vs. Objectivism

Objective approach: considers its data to be whatever can be seen or measured directly and precisely

Subjective approach: considers the more private or inner experiences a person has that can't be shared except through words

Quantification vs. Qualification

Quantification: to be able to report findings through numbers - some form of measurement must be taken

Qualification: data may not be reduced to precise numerical measurement

Reductionism

vs.
Nonreductionism

Reductionism: whether or not the subject matter of psych may stand on its own as independent of other sciences, or should be reduced to a more basic level of analysis

   - argue that nonreductionists are merely describing and not explaining the basic causes of the psychological event

Nonreductionism: believes that psychology is an independent  study with its own subject matter, which is just as legitimate as that of physiology

Molar: studying the whole organism

  - should one study the reactions of the whole organism

Molecular: breaking down an organism into separate component parts

  - or limit oneself to a description of simple discrete reflexes or responses?

Determinism vs. Teleology

Determinism vs. Free Will

Determinism - belief that the causes in the past determine what is going on at the present

Teleology - belief that the future affects the present

Free Will - belief that one's behavior is not completely determined by past events, since humans are capable of making their own decisions because they possess the free will to do so

Utility vs. Purity

Utility - studying what is useful or applicable, pragmatic/practical

Purity - seeking knowledge for knowledge's sake

Nativism vs. Empiricism

Heredity vs. Environment

Nature vs. Nurture

Theory vs. Data

When psychologists depend too much on theory over data, or data over theory. Freud depended largely on theory and hardly looked at the data. 

Pre-Socratic 

(460-370 bc)

Greek Philosophy

Democritus (460-370)

Hippocrates (460-370)

Democritus

(460-370)

- 1st atomic theorist - small tiny particles

- focused on nature

- atoms of reason (thinking)

- was NOT a dualist

Hippocrates

(460-370)

- psychology of temperament

- 4 humors/fluids

    - blood --> cheerful

    - yellow bile --> fiery

    - phlegm --> slow

    - black bile --> sad

Greek Naturalism

(469-322 bc)

Greek philosophy

2 approaches within Greek Naturalism

Dualism (469-347 bc)

Monism (384-322 bc)

Dualism

(469-347 bc)

Greek Naturalism

2 people

Greek Philosophy

Socrates (469-399 bc)

Plato (427-347 bc)

Socrates

(469-399 bc)

- came up with the idea of the psyche (spirit/soul)

- known for his student, Plato

Plato 

(427-347 bc)

- matter is imperfect and perceived through imperfect senses

- theory of ideas --> ideas are perfect

(i can think of a perfect circle, but I can't draw it)

- body is a prison house for the soul

Monism

(384-322 bc)

Greek Naturalism

1 Person

Greek Philosophy

Aristotle (384-322 bc)

Aristotle

(384-322 bc)

- Focused on immediate over abstract

- Soul and body are interdependent, can't be separated

-1st empirical psychologist; loves data

- Behaviorists loves Aristotle

Roman Philosophy

(4 movements)

- Empicureanism, Skepticism, Stoicism, Neo-Platonism

- Rome goes from 500 bc - 476 ad

- movements reflect change: self gratification and cultural decline

Empicureanism

(270 bc)

- pleasure is good, pain is evil

- avoid pain at all costs

- Hedonist

Skepticism 

(270 bc)

- didn't trust sensory perceptions (similar to Plato)

- mistrust in knowledge of right and wrong/truth

Stoicism

(264 bc)

- fatalist attitude

- followed Plato to extreme

- Ideal = good; body = bad

- suppressed self will and appetite

- pleasure = bad

Neo-Platonism 

(270 ad)

- Plotinus - resurrects Plato's ideas

- body/soul dualism

- wasn't a Christian, but believed the "world soul spilled out from the One"

Christian Dogma

Pre-Reformation Christian and Religious Philosophy

3 People

- Augustine (354-430 ad)

- Roger Bacon (1210-1294)

- Thomas Aquinus (1225-1274)

Augustine

(354-430 ad)

- promotes dualism

- people need purged of matter and have a spiritual rebirth

- his influence on psychology was on habit forming and habit breaking, behaviors of grief, motivation, and memory

- true knowledge comes from God and not the natural world, but was still open to learning from nature/culture

- Giant in church and great promoter of education (monasteries) 

Roger Bacon

(1210-1294)

- combined logic of science with logic from the Bible

Thomas Aquinus

(1225-1274)

- nature is worthy of study

- wanted to reintroduce Aristotle

- look at objective study of nature within Christian perspective 

- rejected Plato's idea of soul being inprisoned in body

- looked at psychological topics like emotion, intelligence, and motivation

- comparisons - looked at animals

- Avicenna (981-1037) 

    - interested in relationship between body and feelings

    - kept first philosophers alive

Maimonides (1135-1204)

   - tried to combine science and theology

Western Philosophy

4 movements

Rationalism

British Empiricism

Associationsim

Nativism

Rationalism 

(1600's - early 1700's)

Western Philosophy

- Knowledge comes through reason and an active mind

- Descartes (1596-1650)

- Leibniz (1646-1716)

- Spinoza (1632-1677)

Descartes

(1596-1650)

Rationalism

Western Philosophy

- Interactionism: mind + body are realities and interact at the Pineal gland

- nerves were hollow tubes with animal spirits (royal fountain)

- physical functions of the body are automatic reactions/reflexes

- significance - influenced functionalism and psychoanalysis

Leibniz

(1646-1716)

Rationalism

Western Philosophy

- Monad theory and unchageable, indestructable parts that don't interact

- Parallelism is the mind + body; like 2 clocks running simultaneously side by side but never interacting

- Degrees of consciousness - stronger vs. poorer monads (little perceptions)

- Significance - degree of consciousness (Freud) + parallelism (psychophysical parallelism) - structuralism

Spinoza

(1632-1677)

Rationalism

Western Philosophy

- mind and body are inseparable (monist like Aristotle); are different aspects of the same substance

- psychophysical double-aspectism: cutting an apple. Whichever side (white flesh or red skin) or way you look at it, it is still an apple. The mind (soul) and the brain are the same but viewed in different ways

British Empiricism

(Mid 1500's - Late 1700's)

Western Philosophy

- Knowledge isn't derived from innate abilities, but is derived from the environment and from experience. If the true source of knowledge comes from outside, is the brain a delusion?

- F. Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkely, Hume

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626)

British Empiricism

Western Philosophy

- promoted science and art to regain dominion over creation, which was lost at the Fall

Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679)

British Empiricism

Western Philosophy

- 2 trains of thought: 1) rambling 2) organized

- like Democritus, he believed that moving particles = mental activity

- introduced the concept of the association of ideas but did not explain how this concept worked

J. Locke

(1632-1704)

British Empiricism

Western Philosophy

- Disagreed with Descartes for 3 reasons:

1) if knowledge is innate, it should be constant in all minds

2) if innate, ideas shouldn't show development

3) ideas come from experience and are not inborn

- the mind is passive. it senses things and reflects upon itself

- Tabula Rasa: blank slate

- Dualistic- the mind was separate from the body without a spirit. the mind received ideas from the real world

      - didn't care about the correlation btw mind and body

- believed the world of nature was the ultimate source of knowledge

Berkeley

(1685-1753)

British Empiricism

Western Philosophy

- interested in vision

- we know nothing more than the experience we have had

- true reality comes from what we perceive, but that may not reflect the true nature of the object

- only true nature/reality comes from God's mind

Hume

(1711-1776)

British Empricism

Western Philosophy

- summed up Locke and Berkeley together but an extremist

- reality is only made up of experience

- there is no mind and no God

- the chair in the next room doesn't exist...the next room doesn't exist (out of sight, out of reality)

Associationism 

(1700's-1800's)

Western Philosophy

-Mind is an active processor in making assocations based on experiences

- Hartley, J. Mill and J.S. Mill, Reid

Hartley

(1705-1757)

Associationism

Western Philosophy

- Founder of associationism - influenced by Newton

- Related the mental to the physical

- Process of memory:

     Light waves turned into vibrations

     Vibrations = an imprint/trace (memory)

     The Reoccurance of an experience causes a vibration

     If I experience ABC, if I re-experience A, vibrations              BC are also recalled

J. Mill & J.S. Mill

(1773-1836)(1806-1875)

Associationism

Western Philosophy

Dad:

- 1 law of association = contiguity. Associations occur either at the same time (simultaneously) or one right after another (successive).

- Perceptions = bits of sensations

- Mind is passive

Son:

- 3 laws of association = contiguity, simularity, intensity

- Mind is active

- Transform bits into something more than the sum of its parts (Gestalt

Reid

(1710-1796)

Associationism

Western Philosophy

- Reaction against Hume (association)

- Believed the experience was more vivid than the memory (memory didn't always replicate the experience)

- "Faculty Psychology": mind was an organized entity with ability to perform psychological activities

- Reinstituted a "real world"

Nativism

(1720's-1840's)

Western Philosophy

- Knowledge comes from within - native or inborn

- Reaction against empiricism

- Kant, Herbart

Kant 

(1724-1804)

Nativism

Western Philosophy

- Insisted on the unity of perception (the mind is wholistic. oppositive of associationism - little parts make a whole)

- Our tendency to perceive space and time was not dependent on experience but was inborn

- we have innate ways of knowing

Herbart

(1776-1841)

Nativism

Western Philosophy

- Presumed to build psychology on experience, meta physics, and mathematics

- Psychology = science (measurements & quantitative data)

- Psychic cynamics are forces interacting in and out of consciousness

Neurophysiology

(Mid 1700's - Late 1800's)

- Early physiologist (1737-1856)

- Study of the brain (1758-1880)

- Sensory physiology (1801-1894)

Early physiologist

(1737-1856)

Neurophysiology

Galvani (1737-1798)

Bell (1774-1842)

Hall (1790-1856)

Galvani

(1737-1798)

Early Physiologist

Neurophysiology

- studied electricity in animal tissues (produced a jerk in a frog legs)

Bell 

(1774-1842)

Early Physiologist

Neurophysiology

- Distinction between sensory and motor nerve functions (Rediscovery from Galen)

Hall 

(1790-1856)

Early Physiologist

Neurophysiology

- voluntary movements of the body (cerebrum)

- involuntary movements of the body (cerebellum and spinal cord)

Studies of the Brain

(Mid 1700's - Late 1800's)

Neurophysiology

Gall

Flourens

Broca

Gall

(1758-1828)

Studies of the Brain

Neurophysiology

- phrenology: bumps on the skull

- psychological functions were localized in the brain

- personality/bump

     - popular

Flourens

(1784-1867)

Studies of the Brain

Neurophysiology

- criticized phrenology

- used pigeons to disprove localized pigeons

- brain = seat of mind

- each part of the nervous system acted as a unit and represented a single function

Broca

(1824-1880)

Studies of the Brain

Neurophysiology

- discovered there is some localization

- Broca's Area = speech

Sensory Physiology 

(1800's)

Neurophysiology

Muller

Helmholtz

Muller

(1801-1858)

Sensory Physiology

Neurophysiology

- Doctrine of specific nerve energies

- believed each sense modality has own pathway to brain (right)

- believed each pathway had specific nerve energies (wrong)

Helmholtz

(1821-1894)

Sensory Physiology

Neurophysiology

- measured speed of the nerve impulse

- theories about vision and hearing

Psychophysics 

(late 1700's - late 1800's)

Weber

Fechner

Weber

(1795-1878)

Psychophysics

- interested in how body sees and hears --> did experiments!

- two point threshold (1 or 2 pin pricks?)

- temperature sensation: sensation is based off of temperature of hand, not water

- JND - just noticeable difference (weight of bowling balls)

Fechner

(1801-1887)

Psychophysics

- developed experimental psychology

- dualistic and mystic

- wanted to solve the mind-body problem --> philosophy of nature

- refined JND and created method of average error and method of limits

- known for methodology