Term
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Definition
Any features present in multiple species because they descended from a common ancestor.
A similarity between two or more structures that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor.
(Bones are homologous;wings are not) |
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Term
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Definition
derived: if the trait is different form what was present in the ancestor
evolutionary reversals - toothed frog |
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Term
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Definition
syn=shared, apo=derived, morphy=form
derived traits that are shared among a group of organisms |
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Term
| How are phylogeny trees made? |
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Definition
• Morphology (physiology, behavior)
– body and developmental traits
– Physiological and behavioral traits
• Molecular traits
– Protein structure and changes in amino acids
– DNA: from the nucleus of the cell
• From chloroplasts
• From the mitochondria
• Phylogenies are hypotheses
– Tested and changed |
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Term
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Definition
– Parsimony
• Use the simplest hypothesis that can explain the facts
• Minimize # of evolutionary changes
– Best hypothesis uses the fewest homoplasies (i.e. similar traits have evolved multiple times on few occasions)
– Generally use many traits to create trees
• Consensus trees
– Retains all splits found in most or all the most parsimonious trees
– Some lineages unresolved, because other trees disagree on split |
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Term
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Definition
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species |
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Term
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Definition
4.5 bya
3.8 bya Origin of life; prokaryotes flourish
1.5 bya Eukarytoes evolve; serveral animal phyla appear
600 mya Edicaran fauna |
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Term
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Definition
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian |
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Definition
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Ordovician
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous |
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Term
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Definition
New body plans
a) Cambrian Fuana - arthropods, Annelids
Modificaiton of existing Body Plans
b) Paleozoic Fauna - Echinoderms
c) Modern Fauna - insects, gastropods, birds |
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Term
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Definition
Changes within species or population
mechanism; natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, gene flow
Ex: Evolution of break size in Darwin's Finches |
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Term
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Definition
Changes usually above the level of the species
Ex: appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds from one group of dinosaurs
*Speciation may fall within either category |
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Term
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Definition
gradual divergence of a new lineage
gradual change within a lineage |
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Term
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Definition
| due to large environmental shifts, divergence occur abruptly with relatively little or no change at other times |
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Term
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Definition
| Kingdom Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plant, Animal |
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Term
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Definition
Monophyletic - descended froma single ancestor
Paraphyletic - a taxon group that includes some, but not all of the descendents of a common ancestor
polyphyletic - a group containing taxa that do not share a most recent common ancestor |
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Term
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Definition
Bacteria - Prokaryotic
Arhcea - Prokaryotic
Eukarya - Eukaryotic |
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Term
| Traits shared by all three domains |
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Definition
1) conduct glycolysis
2) Replicate DNA semiconservativly
3) DNA encodes polypetides
4) produce those polypetides by transcription and translation using the same genetic code
5) have plasma membranes and ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
• No nuclei
• No membrane-bound organelles
• No cytoskeleton
• In contrast, eukaryotes have all of these |
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Term
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Definition
• Bacteria: peptidoglycan
• Archaea: varied, but protein-based
– With distinctive lipids in cell membranes
• Eukarya:
– Fungi: Chitin
– Plants & Algae: Cellulose and other
polysaccharides
– (Animals and most protists don’t have cell walls) |
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Term
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Definition
• Prokaryotic cells
• But: rRNA sequences more similar to eukarya
– Signature sequences
– But actual relationships confused by lateral
gene transfer
• Lateral gene transfer:
– Plasmids
– Viruses
– Uptake of DNA by transformation |
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Term
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Definition
• Coccus (Cocci)
• Bacillus (Bacilli)
• Spiral
• Almost all are unicellular
• Some associate in filaments (but still unicellular)
But most diversity is related to metabolism, not morphology |
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Term
| Source of Prokaryotic divergence |
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Definition
-mutation
-resource
-other environments (eg temperature) |
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Term
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Definition
Reproduction
– Asexual: binary fission
– Sexual recombination
• Plasmids
Rapid generation time
• E. coli can clone once every 20 minutes
• 1-3 hours is common
Production of endospores
• Dormant stages
• (Bacillus anthracis) |
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Term
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Definition
-must take in some organic compounds produced by other organisms
Photoheterotophs
- use light as energy source, use organic compounds
Chemoheterotrophs
- obtain energy and organic compounds from external sources
- ie most bacteria, all animals |
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Term
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Definition
photoautotrophs
-photosynthetic. use light as the source of energy and CO2 as source of carbon
• Chemoautotrophs (= chemolitothrophs):
– Obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds. May use sulfur or nitrogen as the basis for reactions. Get carbon from CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
• Live in deep sea (no sunlight)
• Extremely hot! Water close to boiling
• Bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide (H2S) released
from vents
• Chemoautotrophs
• Bacteria are base of food web
– Crabs, clams, shrimp, fish |
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Term
| photoautotrophs: cyanobacteria |
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Definition
• Perform photosynthesis and give off O2
• Sunlight as energy and CO2 as carbon source
• Use Chlorophyll A, like plants
• Other photosynthetic bacteria use bacteriochlorophyll
• Appeared about 3.5 bya, contributed to enriched O2
atmosphere |
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Term
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Definition
– Obligate anaerobes: do not use oxygen in metabolism,and will be poisoned by presence of oxygen
– Aerotolerant anaerobes: can’t use oxygen but will notbe poisoned either
– Facultative anaerobes: can metabolize with or without the presence of oxygen. May be able to handle presence of oxygen or may change metabolic process
– Obligate aerobes: need oxygen for metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
• Organelles with membranes
– specialized factories
• Nucleus
• Cytoskeleton
– Support for cell
– Changes in shape
– Mitosis (distribution of daughter chromosomes)
– Move materials within cell
– Sets the stage for structures used for movement |
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Term
| Eukaryotic Cell - Evolution |
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Definition
1.protective cell wall lost
2.increase surface area – infolding
3.internal membranes, vacuoles
4.cytoskeleton
5.nucleus: infolding vesicle
6.Flagellum: from cytoskeleton
7.Mitochrondria: endosymbiosis with proteobacterium
8.Chloroplast: endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria |
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Term
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Definition
- called Protists but not a clade
- ones that aren't fungi, plants, and animals |
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Term
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Definition
•Unicellular organism very beautiful and diverse
•Silicon in cell walls
•Aquatic – in fresh or salt water
•20% carbon fixation – more than all rain forest combined
•Photoautotrophs do photosynthesis
•Red tide : big bloom in lagoon problem: shut out sun light and excrete toxic waste
•become sediment important source of petroleum and natural gas |
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Term
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Definition
•Seaweed, sea palms
•Always multicellular and marine (aka salt water )
•Provide habitat as a hatchery for eels and turtles in the Mid- Atlantic
•Tissue and organ specialization
i.Stem-like stalkes,Leaf like blades, floatation bladders, holdfast (help hold on to the rocks
•giant kelp
i.Create huge ocean forest habitat for sea animals sea otters |
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Term
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Definition
•Mostly unicellular marine and freshwater
•½ are photosynthetic
•Usually two flagella
•Common endosymbionts, in animals and other microbial eukaryotes
•Red tide : vast numbers; secrete neurotoxin can kill fish
•Bioluminescence when they are disturbed |
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Term
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Definition
•Symbionts with coral
i.Provide coral with energy
ii.Receive protection, shelther, and constant supply of CO2
iii.Coral bleaching look white : bacteria expelled under stressful conditions (i.e. change in temperature)
1.a large % of coral die after such an event |
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Term
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Definition
• Hairlike cilia
• Heterotroph
• Usually unicellular
• Two types of nuclei! |
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Term
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Definition
vacuoles used to
- digest
- excrete |
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Term
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Definition
•All parasitic – all need other organisms to survive
•Apical complex – helps to invade host’s tissues
•Elaborate life cycles might need various hosts to complete cycyles
•Plasmodium – causes malaria by invading a red blood cells
i.uses mosquito and humans as hosts
•Toxoplasma – toxoplasmosis
i.Hosts: cats and animals eaten by cats (eg rats)
ii.Microbe change the behavior of the host (kinda like rabies) |
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Term
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Definition
•Not always red depends on amount of light
•All multicellular
•Chlorophyll a
•Mostly marine, but few in freshwater
•Not motile, no flagelleum at any stage of life |
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Term
| Green Algae (chlorophytes) |
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Definition
•Some are unicellular, some form colonies, multicellular forms
•Chlorophyll a and b
•Losts of morphological diversity
•Volvox: no tissue or oranges but colonies with specialized cells (intermediate form of multicellular organisms with specialized tissues) |
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Term
| Kinetoplastids: Trypanosoma |
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Definition
•Protozoans
•Human pathogens
i.Sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, Leishmaniasis
•No vaccinations, no cures if caught too late
•Often happens in developing countries no incentive for drug companies |
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Term
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Definition
•Produce shells made of calcium carbonate
•Marine; plankton or on substrate largely dependent on current for movement
•Fossilized forms produced vast limestone deposits
•Beaches
•Helps with classifying and dating sedimentary rock |
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Term
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Definition
•Marine
•Unicellular: among largest microbial eukaryotes
•Glassy endoskeletons (kinda like diatoms)
•Pseduopods (fake feet)
i.Increase SA
ii.Help cell to float
iii.Reinforce by microtubules |
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Term
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Definition
•Unicellular, don’t aggregate
•aquatic
•Form lobe-shaped pseudopods use to move and acquire food
•Phagocytosis
•Labeled = predators, parasites, scavegers |
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Term
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Definition
•An amoeboid cell is the vegetative unite
•Myxamoebas: independent cells that swarm, forage, reproduce by fission
•Poor conditions: aggregation slug fruiting body (looks like a mushroom) spores on top live some become the stalk that dies
•Individuals retain their identity
•Conflict: who sacrifices themselves and become the stalk as apposed to spores?
i.But: one clone cheats and is overrepresented has fitness advantage evolution of cooperation only works if cheaters cannot spread in the population |
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Term
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Definition
1. Pseudopods (false feet)
2. Cilia
2. Flagella |
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Term
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Definition
• Amoeba that form fruiting body come from different clones – potential conflict!
• Chimeric fruiting bodies
• But: one clone cheats and is overrepresented
• Evolution of cooperation only works if cheaters cannot spread in the population |
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Term
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Definition
• Multicellular body: mycelium
• Composed of: tubular filaments = hyphae
• Hypha: divided into cell-like units by septa
• Hyphae may be specialized
• Mycelium may be reorganized into reproductive fruiting body
(mushroom) |
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Term
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Definition
oChytrids :Paraphyletic, aquatic
oZygomycetes: paraphyltic terrestrial
oAscomycetes: terrestrial
oBasidiomycetes: terrestrial
oGlomeromycetes: terrestrial ; always multicellular |
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Term
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Definition
use another organism to help control the parasitic plant
- it needs to only attack the parasite
- sometimes it often goes spectacularly wrong --> like cane toads in Australia |
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Term
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Definition
- always heterotrophs
- seceret digestive enzymes --> then absorb nutrients throught SA
- Huge SA to volume ratio - helps! |
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Term
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Definition
| live off dead organic matter |
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Term
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Definition
obligate (need living host) or facultative (can live on dead matter)
attacke plants and animals --> bigesst problem for plants more than bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
- sticky substance on hyphae
- constricting rings catch prey
ex: fungal rings contracts and catches nematodes |
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Term
| Fungi Mutualists - Lichen |
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Definition
– fungus & cyanobacterium or/and photosynthetic algae
– Colonize harsh habitats
oBacteria and algae provide the energy, and fungus provides protection |
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Term
| Fungi Mutualist - Mycorrihizae |
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Definition
– fungus & plant roots
– Fungus helps plants absorb water
& minerals, increases surface
– Fungus receives nutrients |
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Term
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Definition
oFungi are earth’s main means of garbage disposal
oDecomposers
*Break down cellulose and lignin from plants that bacteria can’t
*Break down keratin
oContribute to the carbon cycle |
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Term
| Eukaryotes - Problems formed when plants move to land |
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Definition
1. Water loss: dessication & death
2. Support: water helped overcome gravity – how can they stand erect?
3. UV radiation: filtered by water – mutagenic on land!
4. Reproduction: free-swimming gametes in aquatic environment – how can gametes get together? |
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Term
| Water Loss: dessication and death |
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Definition
• Cuticle (wax covering of whole plant)
• Gametangia (protective covering for gametes)
• Embryos (protective structure for young plants)
• Spore walls (protects spores) |
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Term
| Support: how to stand erect? |
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Definition
• Some don’t grow tall (liverworts, mosses)
- advantage of growing tall -> more sunlight
• Structural support from within
- cell walls: cellulose & lignin
- xylem (wood) --> carries water and minerals up the tree trunk |
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Term
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Definition
water needed in all groups of vascular plants
- except in seeding plants |
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Term
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Definition
- protective pigments ( in animals and humans: melanin)
- protective structures |
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Term
| LIfe Cycle of Land Plants : Alternation of generations |
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Definition
| Gametophytes (N) -> fertilization -> Sporophyte (2N)-> Reduction Division (Meiosis) -> Gametophytes |
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Term
| Human Ex: Alternation of Generations |
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Definition
-You: diploid Sporophyte
-Your mother: haploid Gameotophyte
-Your grand mother: diploid Sporophyte |
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Term
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Definition
-female:Archegonia (ovaries)
-male: antheridia (testes)
-> gametes produced via mitosis |
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Term
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Definition
Rainy Day
- male releases sperm -> swim around till female is found by sperm -> fertilize eggs --> zygote |
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Term
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Definition
-develop inside female
-vascular plants: result diploid sporophyte is independent
-non-vascular plants: diploid sporophyte is dependent -> two generations connceted togehter |
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Term
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Definition
-certain cells undergo meiosis -> produce lots of haploid spores
- spores are spread by wind-> why they land in a good spot they grow into haploid gametophytes |
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