Term
| What is encephalization and how is it measured? |
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Definition
| It is a measure of brain size relative to body size, and it is measured by observing the distance between the plot point of a given species and the slope; the greater the encephalization factor is for a species, the higher the value above the slope. Humans have the highest encephalization factor. |
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Term
| What are some unique brain differences that modern humans evolved compared to other primates (e.g., size increases, birth-to-brain ratio, neural complexity, specialized areas, etc.)? |
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Definition
| Cortical neurons/high speed neurons are more prevalent and more complex in humans. Also, the human ‘birth’ brain size to ‘ultimate’ brain size ratio is lower than other primates (humans have more growth after birth related to learning and experience). At birth, the human brain is only 20% developed in terms of synaptic connectivity. Humans have larger association areas in the cortex than other primates. |
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Term
| Be able to describe some of the key advantageous mutations that have spread in the human population and gave rise to our big brains. |
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Definition
Generally in the development of hominids in the past 5
million years up until 200 thousand years ago, several traits evolved simultaneously: growing big brains, but slowly, longer juvenile period, overcoming ‘hostile forces of nature’, technology & skill of acquiring large, density-rich foods, increased social complexity, and complex mating dynamics & predicting social interactions |
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Term
| Why is the cerebral cortex wrinkled? |
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Definition
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Term
| How thick is the neocortex, how many layers does it consist of, and what are neural columns? |
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Definition
| The neocortex is 2-4 mm thick, and made up of six layers. Neural columns are clusters of columns that process different information such as vision, hearing, emotional regulation, and cognition. It helps generate parallel information processing in the brain. |
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Term
| What are all the amazing functions that our prefrontal cortex allows us to do? |
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Definition
| Our prefrontal cortex is significantly larger than those chimps have; it is involved with self-awareness, novelty solving, sustained attention, inhibitory control, scenario-building, and mental time travel. This area of the brain also has a lot to do with how we solve social problems and work together in a group of up to 150 people (chimps can only work with significantly less). |
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Term
| What is the social complexity hypothesis? |
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Definition
| In general, there is a distinct relationship between the size of the social group an animal lives in and the cognitive abilities of that animal. |
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Term
| How many neurons do we have in our brains? |
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Definition
| Around one hundred billion. |
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Term
| Know the basic anatomy of a neuron. |
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Definition
| Dendrites (branch off cell body), axon (sends messages from each end of neuron, can be super long), terminal endings (end of axon), myelin sheath (wraps around axon, insulating it like a cable) |
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Term
| What is an action potential? |
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Definition
A brief (about one-thousandth of a second) reversal of
electrical polarization of the neuron. |
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Term
| How does myelin impact neural transmission? |
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Definition
| Myelin protects the axon, it covers the axon like a cable; making it more stable and strong for connections/transmissions. |
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Term
| Be able to explain the different neurotransmitters and some general behaviors associated with them. |
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Definition
| Glutamate (most common transmitter used in brain), GABA (2nd most common, an inhibatory/stop neurotransmitter; stops one process to allow another to work [alcohol/pills increase this slowing down]), Acetylcholine (excitatory, increases neurons firing, allows movement in body), Norepinephrine (adrenaline in our brains; amping up brain activity, can increase heart beat), Serotonin (mood regulation, anti-depressives/shrooms increase serotonin), Endorphins (morphine, reduces pain sensitivity), Dopamine (all addictive drugs produce dopamine, in charge of reward system) |
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Term
| What is neurogenesis? When is this process most prevalent? |
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Definition
| Found in the hippocampus, involved with memory; the encoding and formation of long term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter. |
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Term
| What is synaptogenesis? When is this process most prevalent? |
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Definition
Neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and pruning
(resulting in cortical thinning) followed by lifelong
neurogenesis and synaptogenesis = plasticity |
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Term
| What are mirror neurons and what behaviors have they been associated with? |
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Definition
| Neurons that fire when watching someone else do something, producing the same feelings associated with that action (the feedback signal stops you from actually feeling it); culture and civilizations are controlled by mirror neurons, and having a particular skill set makes these neurons more powerful (and so does reading). |
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Term
| Which area(s) of the brain are linked to ‘theory of mind’? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does the brainstem do? |
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Definition
| It is our reptilian brain, and it controls breathing, temperature regulation, basic reflexes, and pain reception. |
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Term
| What functions are associated with the cerebellum? |
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Definition
| It is our 'little brain' and it deals with automatic motor control (posture, balance, quick movements), implicit memories; and it produces new neurons throughout life. |
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Term
| What are some major functions of the limbic system? Describe the functions of the following areas: amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and anterior cingulate cortex. |
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Definition
| It is our emotional brain, made up of the Thalamus (the essential router/relay station for the brain); the Hypothalamus (CEO of the hormone/endocrine system); Hippocampus (long-term memory, spatial navigation); Amygdala (danger detection device, fear processing); Anterior Cingulate Cortex (regulates impulse control) |
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Term
| What is happening to the brain during the teenage years? |
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Definition
| The prefrontal cortex is still developing/not fully developed, which is why teens do stupid things (they have problems with inhibitory control, sustained attention, and scenario-building; which are all functions of the prefrontal cortex) |
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Term
| What ability is related to activity in right temporal-parietal junction? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is theory of mind? How does this relate to the social complexity hypothesis? |
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Definition
| Attributing mental states to others and understanding that they may have different reactions to events than oneself would have. Accomplishing this feat is integral to forming social groups (empathy). |
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Term
| What is the reward pathway? Which brain regions are associated with this pathway? What is the major neurotransmitter in this pathway? How is this system related to drugs of abuse? |
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Definition
The central job of the reward pathway is to make us feel
good when we engage in behaviors that are necessary for our survival. Our “appetites” (hunger, thirst, sexual activity) all trigger the reward pathway. In humans, our attachment systems, interpersonal relationships, religion, art, music, beauty, drugs can all activate this pathway. It starts in midbrain, goes along the VTA path, and sends signals to the nucleus accumbens, which then sends it to the cortex. |
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Term
| What is brain plasticity? |
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Definition
| Neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and pruning (resulting in cortical thinning) followed by lifelong neurogenesis and synaptogenesis = plasticity |
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Term
| Be able to describe some points discussed in the Nesse and Berridge article on psychoactive drug use and evolution. |
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Definition
| Pure psychoactive drugs and direct routes of administration are evolutionarily novel features of our environment. They are inherently pathogenic because they bypass adaptive information processing systems and act directly on ancient brain mechanisms that control emotion and behavior. Drugs that induce positive emotions give a false signal of a fitness benefit or good evolutionary behavior and can therefore be very detrimental to our specie's evolutionary health. This signal hijacks incentive mechanisms of “liking” and “wanting,” and can result in continued use of drugs that no longer bring pleasure. |
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Term
| What are the different photoreceptors in our retinas? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Because of microsaccades; which allow us to see things that are still/unmoving without moving our own head. |
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Term
| Where is face perception processed in the brain? What happens when this area is damaged? |
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Definition
| In the fusiform gyrus; when it is damaged we get prosopagnosia (face blindness; where you can recognize facial features, but not the whole picture). |
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Term
| What are some of the proposed survival functions of our basic tastes? |
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Definition
| Sweet (for energy), Salty (for sodium to fire brain cells), Sour (potentially poison), Bitter (potential poison), Eman (savory; for proteins to grow and repair tissue). |
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Term
| What does it mean when we say someone is a supertaster? |
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Definition
| Someone's tastebuds are determined by their genes, and they taste things more succinctly. |
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Term
| What is the cochlea? What are hair cells? |
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Definition
| Hair cells line the inner part of the cochlea (in inner ear) to pick up sound waves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Pain receptors/sensory neurons; A delta fibers (fast acting pain) and C fibers (longer lasting pain). |
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Term
| How is pain processed in the nervous system? |
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Definition
| Messages about tissue damage are picked up by pain receptors (A and C) and sent to the spinal cord. |
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Term
| How is disgust/fear adaptive? |
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Definition
| They set goals and establish priorities, they are adaptive responses to our environment. |
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Term
| Describe all of the features of the acute stress response. What hormone is associated with acute stress? |
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Definition
| Epinedrine; it mobilizes energy to the exorcising muscle, increases heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate, increases oxygen and glucose to the brain, turns off all long-term projects like digestion, growth and reproduction, enhances clotting, blunt pain reception, learning, memory, and recall. |
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Term
| What is the HPA axis? What type of stress triggers it? |
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Definition
| Chronic stress triggers it; it is the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Adrenal Cortex. H induces P to secrete cortisol, which increases metabolic activity and elevates blood level of sugars, and produces a hormones overload. |
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Term
| What are glucocorticoids? |
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Definition
| A hormone that predominantly affects the metabolism of carbohydrates and, to a lesser extent, fats and proteins (and has other effects). Glucocorticoids are made in the outside portion (the cortex) of the adrenal gland and chemically classed as steroids. Cortisol is the major natural glucocorticoid. The term glucocorticoid also applies to equivalent hormones synthesized in the laboratory. |
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Term
| Describe some of the research on stress levels of individuals working in the British civil service. |
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Definition
| Those higher up in the business hierarchy, managers, CEOs, etc. were under less stress, and enjoyed their jobs more, than those at the bottom of the totem pole, who reporting being under an immense amount of stress and discomfort. |
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Term
| Be familiar with Sapolsky’s research on stress hormones in baboons. |
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Definition
| Sapolsky notes that in some cases stress is more damaging than the stress response typically exhibited in prey and predators in hunting situations. He found in baboons, that a social hierarchy was in place, forcing a ton of stress on those lower on the totem pole (much like in humans!) |
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Term
| How does chronic stress lead to accelerated aging? |
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Definition
| They break down telomeres, a strip of DNA at the end of our chromosomes, faster than they would wear away normally in a lifetime. |
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Term
| What is infant-directed speech and how is it adaptive? |
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Definition
| IDS is a caregiver's communication with infants. It is similar across cultures, making it seem as though such inflections teach the child something at a basic level before they understand language. |
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Term
| Know melodies (i.e. encouragement, stimulation, soothing, and prohibiting) and related prosody (pitch and intonation) (i.e., spectrograms presented during lecture). |
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Definition
| Attention (accoustically highlights whatever you want the child to pay attention to; upward tilt), Approval (down swing of pitch), Prohibitory (short, low pitch; super brief sound), Comforting (lower pitch, but gradual, low, level). |
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Term
| Name the areas of the brain involved in language production and communication, and describe their specific functions. |
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Definition
Broca's area: speech production; grammar production; (out, producing)
Wernicke's area: word recognition; language comprehension (in, recognizing) |
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Term
| Human language: arguments for adaptation or mere byproduct. |
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Definition
Chomsky (1991) and Gould (1987) have argued that language is not an adaptation at all, but rather is a by-product or side effect of the tremendous growth of the human brain In essence, they claim that language emerged spontaneously as one of the many side effects
of a naturally evolved brain e.g., like the heat produced from a lamp.
Pinker says language evolved via natural selection for the communication of information much like echolocation in bats of antennae in insects. |
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Term
| Be able to explain some of the different theories regarding the adaptive function of language. |
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Definition
Social gossip hypthesis: Dunbar says language evolved to keep tabs on complex networks of social relationships (gossip, social grooming).
Language Entertainment Machine: Miller says that the human brain evolved to attract potential mates; language is a tool to show-off. |
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