1. Genetic Fallacies
2. Equivocation
3. Faulty Causation Fallacies
4. False Appeal Fallacies
5. Appeal to Emotion
6. Inconsistency
7. Straw Man
8. Red Herring
9. Either/Or
10. Hasty Generalization
11. Two wrongs make a right 
12. Is/Ought Confusion
13. Questionable Claim 
14. Begging the Question

Absolutism – Defined  as the view that there are no matters of opinion in ethics because there is one and only one right answer to every  ethical question, no matter how personal or trivial.

Act Utilitarianism –equate pleasure with satisfaction or happiness.

1. Identify the ethical decision to be made.
2. Consider all possible optional actions.
3. Consider all people affected by these optional responses.
4. Determine the net utility of each option.
5. Choose and follow the option that produces the highest net utility.

• father of modern economics,
• Adam Smith, argued for three driving values in society and personal life 
• 1.prudence, 2. justice, and 3. care (which he called benevolence).
• Smith considered care the greatest of these values.

Name the three parts of an argument.

1. PREMISES: reasons and evidence.
2. STRUCTURE: nature of the logical relationship between the premises and the claim the argument purports to establish.
3. CONCLUSION: the point that the premises were designed to support or demonstrate.

• The virtue ethics theory of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle focuses primarily on personal character; becoming the right kind of person by developing certain virtuous character traits.
• the first to argue that moral right and wrong should be based more on reason and logic than on religion, superstition, or mythology.
• Reason and logic
• Virtue Ethics-NonConsequential- Personal character. A life of virtue and excellance leads to happiness and fullfillment.

• She  championed a version of ethical egoism similar to Hobbs
• her philosophy objectivism
• like Hobbes argues that human beings are rational egoists who ought to avoid acting in ways that would alienate you from your community or bring harm on you.

Carol Gilligan’s 3 stages of moral development

Gilligan's steps of moral development:

Step 1 - Care for self

Step 2 - Care for others

Step 3 - Balancing and Integrating self-interest and the interests of others. 

Define the following from Kant's theory:

Categorical imperative

• An imperative is a duty or a command.
• Categorical means across all categories, all the time
• Central ethical principle”all the time, no exceptions, moral duty.”

• Cheating is ethically wrong
• Plagiarism
• Cheating creates an unequal playing field

•  Collusion – The act of working with another person on the same academic assignment. An example is working on a term paper together without an instructor authorization. 

• A conflict of interest is defined as a situation where a personal need and desire is at odds with an obligation as a professional or employee.

• Consequential theories base morality on the results or outcomes of behaviors. Actions with good consequences are morally right; actions with bad consequences are morally wrong. 

• Consequential theories base ethical judgements on the results or outcomes of actions or rules.

    Conspiracy- One or more person act in concert to commit academic dishonesty. The intent to gain an advantage   for oneself or another. An example would be a plan to hack a school sever.

• John Rawls - Non consquencial- Fairness- Original Position-Veil of Ignorance
• Contractarianism- Theory bases ethics on the values of justice and fairness, providing processes to help people understand what an ideal, fair solution would be.
• Rawls sees fairness as the central value in ethics- we understand since childhood.
• Contractarianism is primarily a thoery of socail justice thatis better applied to large scale social issues versus individual ehical decision making .

APPLYING CONTRACTARIANISM

1. Consider all possible oiptional actions.
2. Place yourself behind the veil of ignorance .
3. Keep the primary goods in mind.
4. Choose the option that would seem most fair to everyone involved
5. In situations in which things cannot  be completely equal, choose the option that  best protects the interests of the least advantaged person or people in the situation.

Critical Thinking is informed and logical thought.

Ethics could be described as critical thinking about moral problems.

• Critical thinking is the active and systematic process of communication, problem solving, evaluation, analysis, synthesis, and reflection, both individually and in community, to foster understanding, support sound decision making, and guide action.
• critical thinking is logical problem solving.

Critical thinking model:

• Identification

• Research

• Analysis

• Application

• Decision making

• Evaluation 

• Reflection

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: 

• Force
• Deductive argument are rigid and formal
• Conclusion is interrelated  to  the deductive premises
• When properly structured it is truth preserving
• The premises and conclusion interrelate. Premise is relevant to  the other premises in the argument and the conclusion
• Two central concept:  valid when the structure is logically correct and sound when both the structure is valid and the statements in the premises are true.

What is the main principle in the theory of egoism?

• Egoism emphasizes the aim of always acting for perceived self-interest, usually in the long term, even at the expense of others if necessary.
• Egoism – the right action in any situation is the one that is most in the individual’s long term best interest.
• Consequential - Central principle-  act in your own long-term  best interest 

Ethical Issues are moral questions or problems, situations or actions that contain legitimate questions of moral right or wrong .

• our sense of right and wrong 
• our values  and/or belief system
• "Ethos" the guiding beliefs, stnadrads or ideals

• Aristotle unique human quality
• "Happiness"   "Flourishing"
• It means being well and living well. 
• If these two qualities, reason and eudaimonia, are intrinsically unique to humans, then they represent our human nature.
•  Our purpose, goal, or specific function in life is to fulfill our nature.
• Ethics to Aristotle- to flourish

• Fallacy-An illogical argument, often appearing logical at first glance, involving a statement or statements that in one way or another deceive or mislead.

• German
• Ultimate characteristic of a human- lust for power
• More consistantly and effectively an individual pursued this lust for power, the more exemplary the person would be

 Explain the concept of the "Golden Mean."

• ARISTOTLE’S  UNIQUE ETHICAL CONCEPT
• The middle- Balanced Points
• Aristotle’s definition of virtues as being  perfectly balanced points of moderation between opposing, undesirable extremes
• Too little and too much of a good thing.
• Moderation or balance is the key to virtue
•  Find opposing extremes, look for the balance between them

• act according to rules we could want to apply to everyone.
•  Deontological approach to ethics.
•  Dean is the Greek word for "duty," and that sums up the central focus of Kant's moral reasoning.
• Ethics is about fulfilling one's moral duties or obligations
• Moral Duty - our obligation to do the right thing 

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: 

• Form
• Inductive arguments are not rigid
• Premises need not interconnect, premises only need to relate  to the conclusion
• Lack rigid formality and are not truth preserving
• Inductive  conclusion is probably  or likely to be true
• Inductive argument, if both premises are true, then a plausible conclusion is likely. If the premises are false, argument is weak or implausible, the argument is uncogent.

Invalid

Invalid - If the structure of the deductive argument is not logically correct, the argument is invalid

Invalid arguement can not be sound. 

• English philosopher, is credited with founding utilitarianism. 
•  Bentham gave the theory its name
• first systematic exposition in his major work, Principles of Legislation and Morals.
• Defended Democracy as a form of government 
• "Create all the happiness you can create, remove all the misery you can remove."

• Utilitarian theories emphasize the aim of producing the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number
• Act utilitarianism, from Jeremy Bentham, maintains that the right thing to do in any situation is the action that produces the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number.
• Choosing the action that will porduce the most happiness.
• Utilitarianism-Consequential - Morality is a matter of producing the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number.

• Natural Rights- Non consequential - The moral duty is to respect and not violate the rights of others.
• Locke's writings about human rights strongly influenced Thomas Jefferson and the other founders of the United States.

•  Contractarianism-Nonconsequential- Justice , fairness,original posistion,veil of ignorance
• Rawls sees fairness as the central value in ethics

.

 Three principles of justice  Rawls maintain necessary produce a fair social contract? 

1. The Equal Liberties Principle: everyone is entitled to as many rights and liberties (freedoms) as possible, as long as rights and liberties aren’t taken from others.
2. The Equal Opportunity Principle: Everyone should have equal and fair opportunities to improve his or her situations in life.
3. The Difference Principle: When there have to be differences, the differences must be arranged for the greatest possible benefit of the least advantaged people. 

• Rule utilitarianism, inspired by John Stuart Mill, maintains that the right thing to do is to follow rules that promote the greatest possible good, assuming everyone follows them.
• Satisfaction is identical with the good
• Bentham's godson
• Utilitarianism-Consequential- Rule- one should follow the moral rule that would produce the greatest good if eveyone folllowed it. 

• Goodwill- intention to  do the right thing for its own sake.
• Kant argued that ethics is at its most pure and powerful when we exert our willpower in conformity with our moral duty, even when doing so goes against our personal interests and desires.
• The goodwill would derive from an innate human ability to act according to principle,"pure reason "

Lawrence Kohlberg’s:3 Levels of moral development broken down into the

6 stages of moral development

Kohlberg's stages of moral development:

Stage 1-0bedience/punishment

Stage 2-Instrument and relativity

Stage 3-Interpersonal concordance

Stage 4-Law and order

Stage 5-Social contract 

Stage 6-Universal ethical principles 

• Moral development-Human growth in understanding what makes actions right or wrong, and in the complexity of ethical thinking.

. Legalism- Defined as laws governing behavior and ethical discussions are unnecessary.

·        It removes the need to debate right or wrong. If a law is written then, it can be looked up and there is the answer.

·        It is strict adherence to the law. No deviation, no change, no thought into the law being a just law or unjust law.

Logic

• Logic-The branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of good thinking and reasoning  processes.

• In logic, people search for the best ways to think and reason, because some ways of thinking work better and are more effective than others. Ethics and logic are separate academic disciplines.

• Most inportant lesson: the concept  that a good person might break an unjust law as a mtter of conscience 
• Unjust law- a numerical or power majority group comples a minority group to obey but does not make binding on itself.
• Unjust Law- a law that is a code that is out of harmony with the  moral law. 

  Misrepresentation- Is an act or omission with the intent to receive.

An example is lying about a reason why an assignmentas not turned in on time. 

moral character, or having the persistence, self-discipline, courage, and determination to do what we know we should do. In this sense, moral character is the evidence of our moral maturity in action.

moral judgment, the ability to make the right ethical decisions and choices. Critical thinking skills

and solid decision-making abilities are required to  do this.

 moral motivation, or having the desire and intention to do what's right. Rest maintains that this means giving priority to moral values above other personal values.

Acting unethically can have its rewards, and we sometimes have to make sacrifices to keep our integrity and honor. Doing so consistently requires a strong desire to be a good person.

•  moral sensitivity, the ability to recognize and identify an ethical problem
• moral sensitivity. The person must be aware of the ethical nature of the issue, question, or problem at hand.

What are the steps in applying natural law theory?

1. Consider all possible optional actions
2. Evaluate each option to see if it violates or interferes with any of the universal human goods.
3. Eliminate all options that clearly violate one or more universal human goods.
4. Any option remaining are morally permissible. 

• Natural rights-Theory emphasizes the exclusive protection of and reliance upon basic human rights. John Locke's key principle is the fundamental duty to avoid violating the rights of others.
• Natural rights theory, for example, says we are free to realize our ambitions to our heart's content-provided that we don't interfere with others
• Natural Rights-Nonconsequential- The only moral duty is to repsect and not violate the rights of others. 
• Human Rights- Primary focus of  Natural Rights Theory 

POSITIVE RIGHT:     1. some one owes you the thing to which you are  

                                        entitled.

2. You do not have to get it for yourself.

3. Someone else is supposed to get it for you. 

    Parent’s obligation to provide for a child.

NEGATIVE RIGHT:  1. Freedom from interference from others

                                    2. No one is obligated to provide it for you.

                        3. You have the right to get it for yourself, and if you

                            cannot, there is no one to   Blame.

Example is a college education 

• APPLYING THE NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY 
• Consider all possible optional actions.
•  Eliminate any options that clearly violate anyone's negative rights. 
•  Determine whether any remaining options represent positive rights that might imply obligations to others. These positive obligations to others should be fulfilled, as they result from promises or commitments that have been made.
•  All actions that do not violate any positive or negative rights are morally permissible.

What six factors did Bentham say should be included when evaluating the net utility of an action?

1. The intensity of the pleasure an act tends to produce.
2. The duration of the pleasure.
3. Its likelihood of occurring.
4. The immediacy or delay in experiencing that pleasure.
5. The potential of the act to produce pain.
6. The number of people who experience the pleasure or pain. 

• "The Prince"
• he advises acts of pure and sometimes ruthless selfishness for those with ambitions for power

• Nonconsequential theories base these judgments on facts other than the outcomes and consequences, maintaining that something other than mere results caused by an action must factor in determining whether that action was right or wrong.

• Nonconsequential theories base these judgments on factors other than the outcomes and consequences, maintaining that something other than mere results caused by an action must factor in determining whether that action was right or wrong.
• Nonconsequential theories base morality on factors other than the results or outcomes of actions. These other factors can include duties, obligations, rights, laws of nature, or social contracts.

Plagiarism-The incorporation or reproduction of another person’s   original creation without the proper acknowledgement of that person’s work and claiming the work as one’s own work. An example of plagiarism would be purchasing a term paper online

What are Plato's four "classic virtues"?

1. Self-Control (Temperance) – controlling ones appetite so that one desires only good things and in the right proportions.
2. Courage – expresses one’s awareness to endure hardship for the right reasons
3. Wisdom - rational capacity to govern one’s own impulses and feelings, and to think logically and calmly about what is truly important in life.
4. Justice ( Moral rightness) – condition of having everything in its proper place in one’s character and conduct, including  personally possessing  all there other classic virtues in proper measure.

Relativism- Defined assumes there are no moral standards, judgments, or principles that apply to everyone.

·        Another words I can perceive the truth to be what I want it to be. . What is true for you is not true for me.

·        Customs, for example driving on the right side of the road versus driving on the left side of the road.

Applying Rule utilitarianism – simple, one rule is in place follow the rule.

1. List moral rules that would be relevant to situations such as this.
2. Determine the net utility of each rule, if everyone followed it.
3. Choose the moral rule with the highest net utility.
4. Apply this rule to the ethical problem under consideration.

 Situational ethics is determining what is right or good solely on the basis of the momentary context; this implies that what is right or good today in one situation may not be right tomorrow in another set of circumstances. 

Socrates

 Socrates is a martyr for truth, wisdom and courage in the face of blind adherence to traditional beliefs.

• Jurors at his trial mistook Socrates’ commitment to his principles for contempt.
• Socrates tried to use the moment to further educate the citizens of Athens. Socrates was adamant that he never claimed to have all the answers to the questions posed, but was simply asking questions for the purpose of gathering wisdom to help the people of Athens to think about moral goodness rather than   shallow or artificial goods. 

An argument is sound when both the structure is valid and the statements in the premises are true

Explain the meaning of Aristotle's teleology.

• Aristotle observed in nature that every kind of thing in existence seems to have some specific purpose or function.
• Everything in nature has a purpose- Humans have a purpose.
• Nature- whatever makes a kind of thing unique is called nature. Aristotle observed nature, that the purpose of any specific kind of thing is based on what makes that thing unique, different from every other kind of thing. 

•  St. Thomas Aquinas:
• An unjust law is a human law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law.
•  Any law that uplifts human personality is just.
•  Any law that degrades human personality is unjust.
• Natural Law-Non Consequesntial- Universal human Values.
• Catholic scholar
• Catholic ethics - Christian view of ethics.

. List Aquinas' universal human goods.

1.      Human Life

2.      Health

3.      Procreation

4.      Caring for children and promoting their welfare

5.      Knowledge and avoidance of ignorance

6.   Human relationships and the consideration of other people’s interests.

Define the following from Kant's theory

• MAXIM-unconditional general rule or principle a person may choose to act.
• “Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time to be a universal law.”
• Act as we want others to act.
• Only relevant to ethical situations that involve doing something to someone else.
• Example- cheating on taxes as the universally morally accepted practice. 

If anyone of the premises is false or the structure is invalid, the argument is unsound.

Valid

Valid- deductive argument is valid when the structure is logically correct. 

• The veil of ignorance-Raw Is's most creative think as if concept, and the key to his theory, is the veil of ignorance.
•  This is an imaginary process that keeps the contractors in the original position from knowing specific facts about themselves that might influence their decisions
• Keeps you from seeing yourself
• Place yourself behind the veil of ignorance, thinking as if you might be anyone in the situation.

What is the primary focus of the virtue ethics theory? 

• Primary focus is one’s character, especially the personal disposition to act well in various circumstances.
• Primary concern – big the right kind of people so that we do the right thing.