1. 1. Focus is on interactions (ex. dominance) that influence reproductive success of that species
      1. Important component of Darwin's concept of fitness

1. Does size of male impact success in obtaining dead insects?
   1. Visual display
   2. Head butting
   3. Rip off body parts with pinchers
2. Does quality of the "gift" impact mating success of species?
   1. Big dead insect → medium/small dead insect → saliva → no gift
3. What do females gain by mating with males who bring "best" (biggest) dead insects?
   1. Nutrition → egg production
   2. Reduced risk for female because the dead insect is brought to her

1. Sexual selection supported the existence of secondary sex characteristics
2. Selection for one characteristic continues until it is balanced out by selection for another characteristic
   1. Ex. guppies:  selection for color in male guppies--2 factors:
      1. Female preference
      2. Visual predators

Cooperative breeders vs. eusociality (cooperative breeders)

1. Cooperative breeders (ex. greed wood hoopoes that live in tree hole cavities)
   1. Question: why would the non-reproductive ones help raise the offspring of the breeding pair?
      1. One proposal--it may increase their own chances of successful reproduction:
         1. Somebody will have to replace the current breeding pair
         2. They have practice raising offspring
      2. Second proposal--increasing the "inclusive fitness" of the helpers
         1. Inclusive fitness--more comprehensive: overall fitness which includes the fitness of the individual & participation in the survival of individuals with shared genes
         2. Evolutionary factor--kin selection

Cooperative breeders vs. eusociality (eusociality)

1. Eusocial (Ex. woodcutter ants, naked mole rats)
   1. Woodcutter ants (exhibit haplodiploidy which reinforces kin selection)
      1. Haploidiploidy
         1. Males--haploid
         2. Females/reproductive--diploid
      2. Naked mole rats (handout)

1. Similarities between successive generations
2. Some differences are genetic (inherited)
3. Each generation produces more offspring than the environment can support
4. Some traits offer a survival advantage
   

P. glandulosa study

1. Used clones from all 3 sites
   1. 30m above sea level:  coastal
   2. 1,400m:  mid-elevation
   3. 3,000m:  alpine
2. All transplanted to all 3 sites
3. Phenotypic characteristics chosen:
   1. Height
   2. Flower
4. Interpretation with P. glandulosa:
   1. 3 ecotypes--locally adapted & genetically distinct within a species
   2. Contrast--ecotone
      1. Ecological transition zone between 2 adjacent biomes
      2. Not just "overlap" of biodiversity

1. Allele frequency will remain constant if you meet 5 criteria:
   1. No mutation
   2. No migration
   3. No selection pressure
   4. Random mating
   5. Large population
2.  Equations:
   1. p + q = 1
   2. p + q + r = 1

1. Expresses how much phenotypic variation for a specific trait in a specific population is due to genetic variation (inheritance)
2. Defined for a specific trait in a specific population under a given set of circumstances
3. Why?  Degree of impact on a trait by environment, etc. will vary.
4. Result?  Calculate an estimate
5. h₂ formula:  h₂ = V_G/V_F = V_G(V_G+V_E)
   1. V_G:  genetic variance
   2. V_F:  phenotypic variance (only one that is really measurable)
   3. V_E:  environment variance on phenotype
   4. Values range from 0-10
      1. 0:  no genetic basis for variance that you're seeing
      2. 1.0:  the variance is completely due to genetic impact
         1. The more natural selection has an impact
         2. Evolutionary consequences

1. Genetic changes exist between current & founding populations
2. These genetic changes cause morphological changes
3. Case studies:
   1. Lizards:  hind limb length/vegetation
   2. Change due to change:  spruce

1. Size, shape, location of occupied area
2. Factors that limit distribution:
   1. Thermal neutral zone
   2. Limits on energy intake (ex. maximum photosynthetic rate/ex. sun vs. shade plants)
   3. Location/abundance of food/nutrients

1. Barnacle
2. Genus Encelia
   1. Features:
      1. Pubescence/habitat
      2. Macroclimate vs. microclimate

1. Small scale vs. large scale
   1. Small
      1. Few 100 meters
      2. Little environmental change for the population
   2. Large
      1. Large enough to show environmental differences

1. Interactions
   1. Random-neutral
   2. Regular-avoidance
   3. Clumped-attraction
2. Factors:
   1. Location of nutrients (ex. stream vs. water hole)
3. Case studies:
   1. Stingless bees - behavior
   2. Desert shrubs - creosote
      1. Young - clumped
         1. Seeds germinate at a limited # of "safe sites"
         2. Seeds are not dispersed far from parent plant
         3. Asexually produced offspring are necessarily close to parent plant
      2. Middle - random
         1. As plants grow, some individuals die and reduce the degree of clumping
         2. Gradually moves to a more random distribution
      3. Older population - regular
         1. Competition (of water and nutrients, root growth) creates increased mortality in remaining shrubs with nearby neighbors
         2. Root growth - minimizes overlap by not exhibiting circular area for root development

1. *Clumped distributions are common
2. Case studies:
   1. Birds
      1. Opposite seasons:
         1. Christmas bird count
         2. Breeding birds surveyor count
      2. *Ex. birds have "hot spots" of suitable habitats and food

1. Generalization:  increase in size; decrease in density
   1. Animals
   2. Plants
      1. Self-thinning facts:
         1. Once plants establish themselves they're not motile to prevent intraspecific competition for nutrients

3 categories for classifying organisms with regards to population density

1. Local population size
   1. Large/small
2. Geographical range
   1. Extensive/restrictive
3. Habitat tolerance
   1. Broad/narrow

1. Peregrine falcon
   1. Flaw:  small populations
      1. Risk of disease wiping them out
      2. Heavy predation
      3. People targeting them
2. Passenger pigeon
   1. Flaw:  habit tolerance (in conjunction with human activities)
      1. It liked to nest in forest
      2. Many thought it was fun to shoot
3. Mountain gorilla/California condor/Giant panda
   1. Flaw:  all 3 worst categories

1. Ex. Lincoln-Peterson Index
   1. Capture/mark/release/recapture program
   2. Assumptions:
      1. Every individual is just as likely to be captured
      2. Equal numbers of marked & unmarked will die/emigrate
   3. Equation:  N = M(n + 1)/(m + 1)
      1. N:  estimated population
      2. M:  # marked and released
      3. n:  total # recaptured
      4. m:  # recaptured were marked

1. Subgroups of a population/species that are physically (geographically) separated but not biologically separated (individuals migrate between subgroups)
   1. Lesser kestrel
      1. Usually young adult females migrate
      2. Usually young adult males stay in same subgroup
   2. Rocky Mountain butterfly (loss of alpine habitat)
      1. Small subgroup individuals → larger subgroup populations
         

1. Reflect:
   1. Chances for survival
   2. Reproductive capabilities
   3. Potential for future growth
2. White oak
   1. Stable population
3. Rio Grande cottonwood
   1. Declining population
      

1. All adaptations that influence an organism's biology
   1. Ex. its survival

1. When an organism uses energy/resources for one function, there is less energy/resources for remaining functions 
2. Remember:  limitations on available energy & the rate at which an organism processes energy (ex. maximum photosynthetic rate)
3. Result?  Biological tradeoffs

1. Ex. many small eggs or fewer relatively large eggs
2. Ex. Turner & Trexler - darters
   1. Proposal:  *gene flow is higher among darter populations that produce high # of eggs
   2. 15 species (Ohio, Arkansas, Missouri)
   3. Observations:
      1. Fish that produce more eggs, produce smaller eggs
      2. Fish that produce larger eggs, produce fewer # of eggs
   4. *Gene flow/evolutionary impact:
      1. Larger juvenile fish stayed in the same area  - isolated gene pool
      2. Smaller juveniles went downstream with the current - increase gene flow

1. Increased size of seeds/decreased # produced
2. Important life history features:
   1. Growth forms
      1. Westoby, Leishman & Lord - 4 growth forms

         1. Climbers - largest seeds
         2. Woody
         3. Forbs
         4. Graminoids (Ex. grasses)-smallest seeds
   2. Seed dispersal
      1. Types of seed dispersal
         1. Unassisted
         2. Wind
         3. Adhesion
         4. Ants
         5. Vertebrates
         6. Scatter-hoarded

1. Fecundity
2. Survival
3. Relative offspring size
4. Age at reproductive maturity

1. MacArthur & Wilson
   1. r & k selection
      1. "r":  selections favor high reproductive rate-situations such as colonizing new/disurbed areas
      2. "k":  selections favor efficient use of resources with populations often near carrying capacity
      3. Pianka
         1. Viewed "r" & "k" as endpoints

1. Main factors:
   1. Intensity of disturbance
   2. Intensity of stress
      1. Low disturbance/low stress-competitive plant
      2. Low disturbance/high stress
      3. High disturbance/low stress
      4. High disturbance/high stress-no known plants