Term
|
Definition
| 476--German King, assumed the throne of Romulus the Last Latin emperor. Refers only to the Western part of the empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| historian. 1776 book: The Decline and Fall of Rome. |
|
|
Term
| Fall of Eastern Empire, date |
|
Definition
| 1453. When Constantinople fell to the Turks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| empire achieved its greatest boundaries and powers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
made the point in his book that great power leads to desolation.
lamenting the loss of the republic and movement to a dictatorship |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vespatian to Domitian (Eusebius calls him the New Nero. Persecuted the church. Secular community hated him too cause he seized property). Vespasian built the Flavian Amphitheater to please the people |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Best years. Exercised their absolue power with virtue.
1. Nerva (96-98)
2. Trajen (98-117)
3. Hadrian (117-138)
4. Antonias Pious (138-161)
5 Marcus Aurelius (161-180) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Crisis of the 3rd Century (235-384). This is the period when the East splits from the West. Alexander Severus is assassinated, Cyprian's plague, The Split to 3 empires. Diocletian, split cause of tetrachy, Constantine moves capital. final fall in 476 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Barbarian Invasion. (German Perspective: Migration of the People)--Alexander decided to pay tribute to the barbarians so they would stop fighting, thus his troops saw this as betrayal and assassinated him. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hunnic Empire--massive empire during this time. They were on the other side of the German people and were pushing these German tribes toward the Roman Empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Erupted in 251
probably smallpox
Many people in empire killed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
260 (dissatisfaction with leaders, economic troubles, plague brought troubles, divisions, etc. Can also look at this as civil war. Brings famine. domino effect...) Generals split it up for each to rule.
Gallic Empire
Roman Empire
Palmyrene Empire
273--Palmyrene reabsorbed
274--Gallic reabsorbed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
284 Empire comes out of this crisis when Diocletian came to rule
He was a huge persecutor of the church.
opperating out of fear to get the empire back on its feet. so he targets Christians because they do not submit to empire worship. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the East officially splits from the West.
Formalized in 294
Tetrarchy is a rulership of 4 people. that Diocletian enforced.
Augusti--senior rulers of territories. Caesers--junior rulers of empire.
Britanniae and France is ruled by Constantius (Constantine’s father)-junior ruler
Maximian as Augustus of west--northern africa and italy
Galerius junior ruler of greece area. later became the Byzantine Empire.
Diocletian takes the senior ruler of the Eastern half.
Lasts until 313 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
312--Battle of Milvian Bridge.
313-Constantine becomes sole Ruler.
(Edict of Milan in 313).
324--sole ruler......per book. Shift to East.
330--Moves capital to Byzantine and changes the name to Constantinople.
When you move all your wealthy politicians, the economy is greatly effected and improvement would have decreased. Rome missed out on the economy and improvements. Made a difference in the fall. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Rome was looted in 410 by Alaric the Visigoth.
Goths--barbarians sandwiched between Huns and Romans--Visigoths--Goths of the West, Ostrigoths--Goths of the East
Visigoths were Christianized at this point, so it wasn’t very violent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 452--Atilla the Hun came to sack the city. But the Bishop Leo talks him out of it. Close call. |
|
|
Term
| -the Roman Empire complete falls |
|
Definition
476-- Odoacer, a german visogothic king, boots Romulus off the throne and becomes ruler.
Most people wouldn’t have even noticed. |
|
|
Term
| Christianity toppled the Roman Empire |
|
Definition
| They proclaimed a God of the world, not just of the empire. God outside the bounds of the Roman Empire. Emperors perceived that this contributed to a decline of patriotism. Christians would not pledge allegiance to the emperor, worshipping them. Christians didn’t care as much about the empire |
|
|
Term
| Barbarians toppled the Roman Empire |
|
Definition
| Because they were deluding the people of Rome; there was a loss of cultural unification. They were being pressed down into the regions of the Roman Empire and were infiltrating the Empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ever since Nero’s day the empire had been increasing in debt. Nero reduced the silver in his coins to try to help. Eventually, a silver piece had only 1 or 2 % silver |
|
|
Term
| Corruption toppled the Roman Empire |
|
Definition
| looking at the biographical sketches of the poeple Suetonius talks about. They were wastrels that squandered. |
|
|
Term
| Lead Poisoning toppled the Roman Empire |
|
Definition
| The Romans used Lead for piping. So those who were wealthy enough to afford good piping in their houses, probably suffered from this. Too easy of a theory. Says they started going insane. Lack of children. |
|
|
Term
| Imperialism toppled the roman empire |
|
Definition
Empire growth: You would think that the large an empire grows, the more wealthy it becomes. The problem is that as you absorb more and more terrotaries under the same head, your administration becomes more complex so there is a greater demand. Your administration increases exponentially to have an effective rule over more people groups.
Especially as they absorbed more and more small people groups. Eventually get to the point where it is too big and your demand is greater than what you can produce. |
|
|
Term
| Christians lamented the loss of the superpower Rome, but it turned out to be a good thing for Christianity |
|
Definition
Christianity prospers under thriving empire. BUT it almost always outgrows the empire. (for example: the revival in China after missionaries kicked out). So the church really thrived in this culture and grew even more. Missionary work exploded.
Why were they worried? Origen said that an empire was necessary for missions. They though that political stability was necessary for the Church to survive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Missions was considered politically advantageous for empire. But it is not necessarily best. Missions flourished as the empire fell. Just as the fall of Rome didn’t stop missions or church growth; so the fall of the West won’t effect us badly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(ca. 311-383) Missionary to the Goths.
Father was captured by Goths. Fell in love with a Goth. Had Ulfilas. The two of them were go betweens between the Goths and the Roman Empire since they had multi-cultural experience.
When Ulfilas is in Cappadocia, he learns the Christian message of Eusebius of Nicomedia--an Arian promoter. He took that mission back to the Goths. So, the Goths that invaded Jerusalem, had been evangelized in Arian Christianity by Ulfilas.
He had to invent the alphabet to translate much of the Bible into Gothic. These early translations are the earliest base for the the Old English Language. Didn’t translate the warring parts of the Bible because he thought they were truculent enough.
Othanic the Goth persecuted Ulfilas and his people, so they relocated to modern day Bulgaria where they continued missions. |
|
|
Term
| 6 Theories of the Fall of Rome |
|
Definition
Christianity toppled the Roman Empire.
Barbarians
Economic Depression
Corruption
Lead Poisoning
Imperialism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a small empire, almost a competitor of the Roman Empire.
Frumentius and Edesia--nephews the philosopher would take with him on voyage. On the way back from India, they stopped in Ethiopia. Massacre on the ship, but the two boys were studying under a tree, when they were found, they were taken to the king and put to work in the court as scribes. When they are released after the king dies, they go to Alexandria. Frumentius is ordained by Athanasius and sent back. This is when it became a Christian country. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a church historian who picked up the story line where Eusebius leaves off. Gives the history of the Christianization of Ethiopia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
389-461
He represents the very earliest Christianity in the English Islands. He was kidnapped by pirates when he was sixteen. Taken to Ireland and made to watch sheep.
There was a monastery system in Ireland in 5th and 6th centuries that preserved much informaiton. Perhaps because of Patrick’s own lack of education, there was an emphasis on this.
After he returned to England, he had a vision of an Irish man. “Holy boy, we are asking you to come home and walk among us agian.” So, Patrick returned and set up a church there. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Until the Senate of Whitby in 664, the Irish church really had its own character. Until this, the Irish church was decentralized (Abbot who would walk between monasteries...). They then take on the Benedictine Rule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
521-597 (name means dove). An Irish Christian in the thriving Christianity of Patrick’s influence. He was living in a monastery, learning. Columba had a serious temper problem. A manuscript of Jerome’s comes through the monastery, Columba copies it. the abbot asks him to give it back. A civil war erupts because of it, because Columba had a warlord cousin. So, Columba exiles himself because of it. To the Island of Iona. Builds a monastery there which becomes a missionary center.
“What’s a better way to punish yourself than do evangelism among the Scots.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 540-604. Many will look to Gregory as the first Pope. Some would look to Leo 1, but most look to Gregory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Gregory goes into the slave market in Rome and sees some Red-headed, blue-eyed children. He asks about them, and the slave trader calls them angles. So, gregory sends Augustine of Canterbury and 40 monks to try to convert this beautiful race of people.
Canterbury is where they landed. This is why the Archbishop of Canterbury became the head (pope) of the English church.
Communications between Gregory the Great and Augustine. Gregory tells ‘augustine practical advice. Says to replace pagan celebrations with Christian practices. Don’t tear down the temples, etc. use them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(602-690)
Pope appointed him as archbishop or Canterbury.
The Venerable Bede describes Theodore. He wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
First one to introduce the Catholic way of life to the English. Meaning the universal way of life, coming from Rome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ca. 633-709 -- Introduced Benedict’s Rule of Life into English society for the Monks. Synchronized English and Roman Churches.
Willibrord 658-739 -- in some ways the predecessor to Windfrid. Teacher, Egbert, sent Willibrord on a mission to the Netherlands.
Winfrid/Boniface 672-754 -- went with Willabrord. Name means “doer of good.” Patron Saint of Germany
The Confessions of St Patrick
The Letters of Boniface.
Between 600s and 900s-- little little information during these days.
Boniface, studied in a monastery and taught and wrote latin. Wanted to do missionary work.
In a lot of ways Boniface influenced the attention to the rest of the Gentiles throughout Europe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (801-8)5 Patron Saint of Denmark |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Byzantine churches: independently run churches. Each has its own head |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Eastern Orthodox is a very traditional faith!. It relies very heavily on the writings on fhe church fathers.
Maximus is the authority on this |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Byzantium becomes Constantinople |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Means “Holy Wisdom” Was an Eastern Orthodox church from its building in 360 to1453, the falling of the Rest of the empire when the Turks invaded. It was a mosque until 1931 when it became a museum
John Chrysostom was responsible for the 2nd destruction of this church. When we was arrested, the poeple destroyed it again |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| died in 1015BC. He send out envoys to find the right religion for the Russian empire. The envoys came back and say no to Islam, and Jewsl But coming back from Constantinople, they worshipped at Hagia Sophia chose Orthodoxy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excommunicates the eccumenical patriarch. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dies in 395--Roman empire was never the same...split. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dies in 453 and the Hunnic empire fell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Represents a highpoint in the early Eastern Empire
Justin 1--518-527--reighning days.
both rose to greatness.
Euphenia
Justinian 1--a Christian King. Got rid of pagan temple of Artemiss. 533-565 Much of the Roman Territory was reclaimed by Justinian |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Eutychis taught a form of Monophysitism--Christ had only one nature. His humanity is lost in his divinity.
The council of Chalcedon presents Dyophysitism--the teaching of the two natures. Miaphysitism--essentially thsame things as Mono, just dfferent prefixes.
Political split between east and west, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Nestorius Taught that the nature of Christ must be clearly divided, human and divine. Taught that GOd could not be an infant 3 and 4 months old. Condemned at boht Ephesus and Chalcedon.
Ephesus had always been associated with the cult of Mary.
The NEstorian Church was very missional even though there was great rejection of it within the empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In 451, the Chalcedon Council was attempt to solve several problems in history: Nestrianism and Eutychianism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Understand that he is seen as the “Jesus” figure of Islam. The key person.
Born in Mecca 570AD. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Arabia was sandwiched between the Byzantine and Persian empires.
Islam is the youngest of religions. Came into the scene at the time of Christian empires beside it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Father’s name was Abdullah
Means: Servant of Allah
Thus, Muhammad did not invent the word. Just the Arabian name for God
Mother’s name was Amina
Died when he was very young. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a viceroy from the kingdom of Ethiopia attacked Arabia in the year Muhammad was born. Called the Year of the Elephant. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Uncle who was a very formative presence in his life. Had a caravan business that Muhammad helped with.
Tradition: Caravan from Mecca to Syria. Through this, Muhammad met Christians and Jews. During one trip...said he was a prophet |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 595AD--a wealthy widow that Muhammad worked for. She was 15 years older than him. They eventually married. Muhammad never divorced her. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ould meditate in the Arabian Desert
Once had a very traumatic experience attributed to interaction with the angel Gabriel. Had a “revelation”
The doubt that followed this experience is referred to as the Fatra
His wife decides to help him test the spirit to see if it was a good spirit or not. She gives him confidence to share his revelation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a controversial translation that Muslims tend to steer away from, but most outside prefer to look at to see the controversies, etc.
Sura 53.19-22
Al-Tabari (died in 923). wrestled with this verse. Said that the Satanic verse was inspired by Satan--not as clearly monotheistic as it refers to traditional goddesses of the Arabian people. Arabian people at the time were pantheists.
Salman Rushdie--in 1988 published a novel called Satanic Verses that caused an outrage among the Muslims |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
s an example of the fact that Muhammad is not the only true prophet that he took comfort in.
Muslims say that the earlier suras are abrogated by the later ones. so he may have said two different things, but that is k. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| --oneness of God in Islam. Monotheism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
615AD-Muhammad and his followers immigrated to Ethiopia. Sometimes known as the Hijra--more often used for pilgrimage, etc. Then return to Mecca
Transfer from Mecca to Medina is definitely referred to as Hijra. This is when Muslim calendar begins.
faced a lot of persecution
a lot of other tough times.... |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Caravan raids begain the idea of Jihad--holy war. Sura 3.169.
Muhammad decides that raiding caravans is a good way to get material supplies.
this was known and accepted.
But, in the holy month of Rajab, he continued raiding caravans, and the broad community was upset. Sura 2.217 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The meccans attacked medina, but, though they were more powerful, Muhammad had dug a trench around medina that helped. It was considered a miracle that Medina won.
Muhammad blames Jews and has 700 Jewish men beheaded.
Shows that all religions are not the same. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Muhammad married 11 or 12 women.
Sawda--Muhammad’s 2nd wife. Said she wouldn’t interfere with Aisha, so that he wouldn’t divorce her.
Aisha--most well known wife. Most celebrated woman in Islam. Didn’t consummate the marriage till she was 9 tho married her when she was 6.
Sura 4.3--in traditional muslim culture, men could marry 4 woman.
Culture involved, not just ethics.
Muhammad received a special revelation allowing him alone to marry as many wives as he wants. Sura 33.51
Sura 33.36. Muhammad had his adopted son, Zayd, divorce his wife, so he could have her. Sura 33.53
Promise of erotic pleasure in paradise to those who die |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
When Muhammad died, there was a conflict between his followers as to who should lead.
Abu Bahr--first convert to Islam--1st of the Calliphs.
Umar was the second of the rightly guided Calliphs.
Uthman--3rd of the rightly guided Caliphs. started the process of forming koran
Ali ibn was the fourth. (many wondered if he was responsible for the assassination of his predecessor.) A mere 30 years after death. -married Muhammad’s favorid daughter
Caliphate is the leader of the muslim state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 90% are Sunni, 10% are Shia. Shi'a favor the fourth, Ali ibn |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the day of remembrance for Al-Husan. Shiite muslims will cut themselves over sorrow of this. 618 Yazid, son of Mu’awiua, takes over and Al-Husan attacks him.
Al-Husan’s troups were basically massacred. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mu’awiua--declared war on Ali due to this.
Battle of Siffin--split in Islam.
Kharijites came to Ali’s side, but due to Ali’s weakness, they assassinated him.
After ali died, Al-Husan, his son, took over this empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Muslim Civil Law.
recognizes polygamy.
recognizes Mut-a--temp. marriage. aka. concubine.
divorce.....ok?
Sura 24.2--punishment for adultery is 100 lashes.
Sura 5.38--chop off both hands.
reject capitalism. Sura 2:275
banks don’t take interese\t, they takes service charges |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
2.Prayer 5 times a day
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca
4. Fasting during Reamadan
3. Alms-giving
1. Shahada--the Muslim profession of faith (“there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Arranged in Suras
longest to shortest
not chronologically
question of whether sura 1 was included in the first version. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is at about the place Christianity was in 1830. there is not a critical edition of the Koran |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Charles the Great, became 768
to some historians, he became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. But, we say that it began with the coronation of Otto 962
called: The Father of Europe |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
revival of education
Latin comes into play as the dominate language
Romance (Rome Based) Languages becoming distinct, taking on their own style.
All latin based languages
Charlemagne insisted on a return to classical latin, so the vulgar latin took on its own characteristics to become French, Spanish, Italian, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
476-962 (500-1000)
Fall or Western Rome 476
Roman Empire collapse
Power vacuum
Church trying to develop itself
Otto coronated as Holy Roman Emperor 962
a major turning point (a question of how many strata have changed at once |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
962-1274 (1000-1300)
Prosperity
Flourishing of the Church
950 to 1250--the Warm Period. When the earth was just a bit warmer.
Time of the Crusades (1272 is the end of the 9th crusade)
Council of Lyons II in 1274
Thomas Aquinas died in this year |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1274-1517 (1300-1500)
Economic downturn
Less education
1346--in Crimea--Black Death--in between 40 and 50 percent of the population died. damage done by 1351. Took over a century to recover.
100 Years War--1337-1453--essentially one long civil war on French soil.
95 Theses--Martin Luther-- 1517 |
|
|
Term
| Byzantine Empire Date Divisions |
|
Definition
| Christ to Nicea II (787) (revalidated the veneration of Icons) |
|
|
Term
| Byzantine Empire Date Divisions |
|
Definition
| Christ to Nicea II (787) (revalidated the veneration of Icons) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
in order to understand Charlemange’s story
Merovingian Dynasty
Carolingian Dynasty
Charlemagne |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(long haired...):
Clovis I in 496, converts to Christianity, beginning of Merovingian Dynasty. 476-511. Frankish King who unites all of the Frankish territory under one king.
Son of Childeric I, ca 440-451
Merovech, father of Childeric, ca. 415-458
Clotilda, in 493, married Clovis. She was a Christian from Brigundy. She had a church built in Paris in honor of Peter and Paul after Clovis’s conversion. She was catholic, which means, not Arian.
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, history of Clovis’s conversion.
Baptized on Christmas Day in 496
Begins a mission to Catholicize the Goths, which is why he takes over lots of the territory around him. Many of Goths were Arians.
Story reminiscent of Constantine.
Succeeded by a bunch of kings called the “Do-Nothing Kings.” |
|
|
Term
| Dates of Merovingian and Carolingian |
|
Definition
Charles Martel (688-741) was the illegitimate child of Pepin of Herstal (Pepin II)
son of Pepin of Landon (Pepin I)
Charles Son is Pepin the Short (Pepin III) (714-768)
His Son is Charlemegne (748-514) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(Charles the Hammer) was the father of the Carolingian Dynasty, and grandfather of Charlemagne. 688-741.
Mayor of the Palace
Remembered for:
Battle of Tours in 732
and Feudalism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
in 732
Muslim Empire stopped before getting into France. Chalres Martel led a successful battle against the invaders
created a permanent stop at Tours. The Muslims never went any farther north.
Important moment in the cultural development of European people thinking of themselves as Europeans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
He is in some way responsible for the rise of Feudalism.
Feudalism--a set of conventions that governed medieval society..
has everything to do with land ownership. Lord: landowner. Fief: land that is owned. Vassal: works on the Lord’s Fief but doesn’t own the land, but returns some of the excess from the land to the Lord.
In a sense took over the need left by the lack of Roman Empire.
Still affects England. “You can walk across England...”
Communism: the government owns the means of production. In Socialism: The community owns the means. Today, individuals do. Land was that means of production at that time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Called the Father of Europe because when he died, Modern Western Europe was somewhat reflected in a recongnizable way.
Capital of Charlemagne’s Empire was Aachen
about 6 foot 2 in. Very large person
Though he made some impressive conquests, his most important political acheivment was the Consolidation of power.
Charlemagne conquered the Lombards |
|
|
Term
| Charlemange is crowned Holy Roman Emperor |
|
Definition
Christmas Day 800in Saint Peter’s Basilica.
Leo III was pope at the time and he coronated Charlemagne.
From a commoner’s background
became elevated to this position by diligence and hard work.
Many of the Roman Nobility were angry about his appointing as Pope
Adrian I was the pope before him, developed a good relationship with Charlemagne during the conquest of the Lomards
Emperor was to protect the pope and pope was to pray for the empire
So, after the people spread rumors of Leo being an adulterer and perjurer, Leo runs to Charlemange. Exonerates Leo of the charges, and in return, Leo sneakily crowns him.
Important to note because it make it appear that pope gives power. So, in granting the authority to be emperor to CHarlemange, Leo was securing ties to CHarlemange and elevating his position, and severing ties with the east. There already was an Empress (Irene) of the Eastern part who would have considered herself empress of the Roman empire. So this emphasizes the split. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
843 Charlemange had 4 wives and several concubines, so many children to fight over the empire after he died.
This is where a treaty was reached among his grandchildren as to who would rule what.
This splits the empire, giving cultural and geographical shape to Europe.
THese territories look much like modern France, Germany and Italy |
|
|
Term
| Reasons he would be considered father of Holy Roman Empire |
|
Definition
Crowned by the Pope
Called himself the Emperor
Motto was: Revive the Roman Empire
Started the tradition of the Pope crowning
But, Otto I was the Emperor in 962, when they began to call it the Holy Roman Empire which remained until it dissolved in 1806. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Tremendous Education Reforms.
Charlemange used the Catholic Church to push through his reforms.
Which is why Latin became the official language of the church. This is where the Latin, Catholic culture of Europe came from.
Brought the most prominent Scholars of the day: |
|
|
Term
| Prominent Scholars from Carolingian Renaissance |
|
Definition
Alcoin of York (735-804)--the main source of Charlemagne’s reform. In many ways the founder of the modern European school system.
He tutored, started a library, etc
Made it his goal to teach everyone the 10 Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer.
Martin Luther added the Apostle’s Creed to it.
796, he was offered the position of Abbot at a monastery of St. Martin of Tours at Tours. where he reformed the education there.
In 789, Charlemagne issued and edict entitled: Admonitio Generlais. Said that every cathedral with a bishopric and every monastery would have a school.
Alcoin focused the curriculum on Augustine and Boethius. |
|
|
