Term
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Definition
- taste
- immediate sense
- fluid is saliva
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Term
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Definition
- verts - taste buds
- 20-50 sensory cells in each taste bud
- Average receptor cell ~14 days; taste buds rebuilt constantly
- taste buds under skin to last longer
- terrestrial: scattered across tongue and few scattered around oral pharynx region
- aquatic: very diverse; on body surface since dissolved in water
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Term
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Definition
- Taste hairs (microvilli) extend out from apical surface; only part that sticks out
- Taste buds in protective capsule below surface of skin
- taste hairs pick up molecules that are dissolved in saliva and initiate hyperpolarization or depolarization, send signal to neuron to be interpreted by brain
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Term
| 4 classic taste sensations and 2 non-traditional |
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Definition
- sour
- sweet
- salty
- bitter
- water- humans no longer have (fish and amphibians do); sit inside throat (whether thirsty or not)
- umami- sensitive to amino acids; specifically glutamic acid (chicken broth)
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Term
| Vomoronasal organ (Jacobson's Organ) |
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Definition
- reptiles, amphibians, whales
- stick tongue out; roll into jacobson's organ; what direction prey is in
- Started off as olfactory tissue; little puch pinched off (Rathke's pouch- on top of hard pallet); puch turns into it
- Gusatory organ derived from olfactory tissue
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Term
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Definition
- smell
- distant sense
- fluid is mucus
- bipolar neuron system but secondary neurons often involved
- Picked up by epithalamus
- Olfactory neurons do not adapt b/c of emergency situations (gas)
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Term
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Definition
- have a cuticle on outside of body that is permeated
- allows odiferous molecules a way through exoskeleton to dendrites
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Term
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Definition
- differentiated dendrites
- much thicker and extend out onto surface of the mucosa
- lay over each other and create lots of S.A.
- Sustentacular cells- increase S.A. andprobability that molecules will be dissolved; provide certain nutrients and tactile support
- sensillia- thicker dendrites
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Term
| Steps in Initial Process of Gustation |
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Definition
- Odiferous molec. sucked into nose; dissolved in mucopolysaccharide layer
- mucus on top of sensilla and keeps membrane moist
- molecules -> mucus -> settle on dendrites which initiates an action potential
- Action potential carries signal to olfactory nerve and is determined by brain
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Term
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Definition
- Musky
- Floral
- Pepperminty
- Camporaceous- vicks vapor rub
- Ethereal- alcohol
- Pungent- sharp odors
- Putrid- sour odors
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Term
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Definition
- foraging/feeding
- location/navigation (salmon migrating)
- reproduction and development (male gypsy moth fly to find female with pheromones; barnacles sessile but within one penis length of another)
- protection (skunk)
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Term
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Definition
- diffuse photosensitivity
- nearly all phylas
- Rhodobsin pigment absent
- Adv: tell night from day, timing of seasonal events, sense predator or prey
- Don't know how it works
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Term
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Definition
- flatworms, annelids, arthropods
- not image forming
- 3 forms: flat sheets, concave, and convex
- rhodobsin can be bleached
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Term
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Definition
- primitive
- intensity but no direction
- light -> receptor cells -> action potential to brain -> interpreted as light
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Term
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Definition
- cup shaped
- directionality and intensity
- single lens eye
- light comes from right, strikes on the left side
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Term
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Definition
- light intensity and directionality
- compound eye
- humps up
- light comes from right, strikes left
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Term
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Definition
- complex w/accesory structures
- receptor cells- secondary sense cells
- forms sharp image
- two evolutionary lines:
- laminar- verts; membrane folded w/rhodobsin pigment
- rhabdomeric tubes- arthropods; coiled tubes
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Term
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Definition
- cornea, lens, retina
- laminar arrangement
- single lens eye
- cnidarians, annelids, mollusks, (1 lineage) and verts (2 lineages)
- 3 layers: outer tunic (sclera), middle tunic (choroid), inner tunic (retina)
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Term
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Definition
- thick layer of connective tissue
- 1/6 is transparent - cornea
- 5/6 is dense connective white tissue- Aqueous humor
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Term
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Definition
- ciliary muscles, iris, and lens
- vascular tunic- all nerves here
- blood supply to eye
- pigmented area
- absorbs light
- no light bouncing
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Term
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Definition
- sensory layer with sensory cells
- tipped upside down cone
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Term
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Definition
- part of outer layer
- light passes thru, refracted off of aqueous humor
- wavelengths bend the right way, all focused on single point (retina)
- important for focusing (accommodation)
- 85% happens here
- can't see under water b/c it bends light
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Term
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Definition
- middle tunic (choroid)
- color region
- limits amnt of light that can enter
- dictates how big pupil is
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Term
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Definition
- Middle layer (choroid)
- connective tissue
- aqueous humor on front, vitreous humor on back
- vitreus humor- thick and stiff; structure- holds lens in place
- lens is flexible (15% of accomodation)
- terrestrial- flat lens, curved, flexible, thin
- aquatic- round; lens dpes all of accomodation power
- filters out ultraviolet radiation
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Term
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Definition
- Animals darker on top and lighter on bottom
- destroys depth perception
- defeat it with a yellow lens that increase contrast
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Term
| 3 ways to change focal length |
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Definition
- Change lens shape- fastest and most efficient (humans)
- Move lens- forward and back; inverts do it by squeezing eye; not as efficient
- Move retina- few annelids; impractical
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Term
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Definition
- blind spot
- where nerves enter
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Term
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Definition
- Outer pigment retina- absorbs light; black
- Inner sensory retina- sensory cells contain photoreceptors
- Rods
- Cones
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Term
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Definition
- Outer segment
- cylindrical and long
- contain rhodobsin- helps with bleeching
- 20x more common than cones
- sensitive to low intensity light
- no color images
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Term
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Definition
- short and wide and narrows down at base
- contain lodobsin
- sensitive to high intensity light
- require more light energy
- can see color images
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Term
| Trichromatic vision theory |
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Definition
- Humans have three cones: red, blue, green
- Rest of colors on spectrum are mixtures of these colors
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Term
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Definition
- rods migrate inward and cones move forward
- All verts have ability
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Term
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Definition
- cones move deeper into pigmented retina and rods migrate outwards to be exposed to more light
- all verts have ability
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Term
| Multifaceted eye (convex eye) |
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Definition
- compound eye
- omatidia- individual photoreceptor unit
- inverts, insects
- contain rhabdomeric tubes
- each segment is its own visual system
- lights -> lens -> sensory cells (retinula cells) ->rhabdom (ligth trap)- collects energy and causes sensory cells to make an action potential
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Term
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Definition
- photoreceptor unit
- don't have to focus b/c focus at any distance but no field of vision
- 1-1000s of them
- picks up a small field of vision and protocerebrum integrates pic together
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Term
| Pineal or Median Eye of Verts |
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Definition
- lamprey and some lizards
- pineal organ complex
- light spot inbtwn eyes
- picks up light/dark but no image
- humans -> now pineal gland (endocrine system)
- responsible for maturation, control melatonin and sleeping functions
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Term
| Eyes of the "eyeless" shrimp |
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Definition
- no image forming eye
- lives around hydrothermal vents
- eat sulphide bacteria
- discolored patches contain rhodobsin located on thorax
- pick up infrared radiation- sense it so they can see the barrier of where it's too hot
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Term
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Definition
- use of chemical energy to grow, survive, reproduce, and maintenance
- importance: maintenance, growth, reproduction
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Term
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Definition
- large compounds are broken down into simpler compounds
- release of energy
- release heat
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Term
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Definition
- simple compounds are built into more complex compounds which ties eneergy into chemical bounds
- tough to measure
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Term
| Metabolic measurements useful because... |
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Definition
- calculate total energy requirement
- ability of animals to conserve/release heat
- energy cost associated with an activity
- construct energy budgets
- metabolic rates change in different environments
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Term
| Factors that influence metabolic rate |
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Definition
- # and intensity of various activities
- biological factors: seasons, time of day, age, gender, stress
- environmental factors: temp, pressure, salinity, pH
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Term
| Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) |
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Definition
- metabolic rate of resting, fasting, mammals and birds under minimal physiological and environmental stress
- endothermic animals
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Term
| Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR) |
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Definition
- resting and fasting metabolism of poikilotherms under minimal physiological and envirnmental stress, at any given temp
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Term
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Definition
- when prepare to digest a meal, preparation starts and is expensive
- 10-15% increase in metabolic rate
- can do this w/out food
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Term
| Routine Active Metabolic Rate |
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Definition
- average metabolic rate or normally active animal
- hard to measure b/c have to do it under natural conditions
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Term
| Maximum Sustained Metabolic Rate |
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Definition
- metabolic rate at sustained, vigorous activity
- ex. human walking on treadmill at brisk pace for a long time
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Term
| Index of metabolic expansibility |
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Definition
- ratio of MSMR/BMR or MSMR/SMR
- potential for metabolic increase over resting rate
- Most animals: 10-15
- flying insects: 100 plus times
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Term
|
Definition
- useful for finding an energy budget
- diffference btwn energy we intake and the energy we put out
- Ballistice bomb calorimetry
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Term
| Ballistic Bomb Calorimetry |
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Definition
- good direct with moment to moment respiration
- heat that is given off is the heat that was tide up in bonds and that's what is measured
- Allows to measure anabolic components
- Disadv: can't make sequential measurements, expensive, blow up subject
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Term
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Definition
- total heat production
- measure catabolic; what it costs to live from moment to moment
- most obvious manifestation of Hess's law
- Mouse in chamber w/jacket of ice around; ice melts; measure the water; 80 calories = 1 mL of water
- disadv: everything generate heat, can't account anabolic
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Term
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Definition
- determine rate of oxygen consumption
- aka respirometry
- assumes heat produced is directly proportional to oxygen consumed
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Term
| Manorimetric Respirometry |
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Definition
- air breathers
- little animal in flask + NaOH or KOH to remove CO2 from animal
- Amnt of oxygen squirted in is the amnt of oxygen animal consumed
- disadv: temp must be constant, leaks
- adv: can be used in field
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Term
| Flow- through Respirometer |
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Definition
- large water breathers with ^ metabolic rates
- fish in jar; measure oxygen out and in
- difference of two numbers is the oxygen consumption
- easiest way to measure
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Term
|
Definition
- small water breather w/low metabolic rate
- fish in sealed jar and measure O in it
- after some time, open jar and measure O again
- least desirable
- easy to do
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Term
| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance |
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Definition
- measures # of high energy bonds
- very expensive
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Term
| Conversion of O consumption to heat |
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Definition
- 4 macromolecules: proteins, lipids, carbs, and nucleic acids
- verts incompletely burn proteins b/c AA can't be broken down: excrete as urea (birds as uric acid)
- 4.8 kcal/L of oxygen is magic number
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Term
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Definition
- terminal e- acceptor
- 20x more O in air than water
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Term
| O in terrestrial environments |
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Definition
- consistent and ^
- aerobic more efficient than anaerobic
- air breathers- O independent (when O levels go up or down, metabolic rate stays the same)
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Term
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Definition
- in water, allows metabolic rate to track w/O content in environment
- metabolic rate drops as O drops by shutting down systems or organs for awhile
- ^ most effective way
- O dependent
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Term
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Definition
- maintain high levels of O in tissue at all times
- O decreases: doubles rate of O across gills, respiratory rate, heart rate, pumping blood
- O independent
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Term
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Definition
- switch from being a regulator to a conformer
- can't handle anymore
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Term
| Adaptations to survive hypoxic events |
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Definition
- migrate to O rich zones
- Vertical migration: top-ward migration (fish stuck at thin layer (ASR) of water that is saturated with O) and bottim-migration (swim to deeper part of ocean which is colder and more O)
- Horizontal migration: swim to another area
- use anaerobic pathways: terminal e- acceptor is lactate
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Term
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Definition
- amount of lactate generated
- lactate takes the place of O until O can pay it back
- verts do this
- can become acidic so some use alcohol as the terminal e- acceptor
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Term
| fish in 2-3 atm and ^ pressure |
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Definition
- 50-100 stm: metabolic rate and activity level ^ due to stress
- 200-400 atm: metabolic rate v , pathways inhibited by pressure, death is imminent
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Term
| 4 ways high pressure affects metabolism |
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Definition
- dirupts pH: dissociation of weak acids and bases; least likely to kill
- shift velocity constants: high pressure envnmnt take low vol. rxns and speeds them up ; hgih vol. rxns slow down
- collaps weak chemical bonds: H and van der waals
- Cell membranes altered: compacted- liquid -> solid & ions can't pass through
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Term
| How animals live in bottom of ocean |
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Definition
- where they evolved
- build enzymes that can function down there
- they have more disulfide bonds and salt bridges
- build rigid proteins
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Term
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Definition
- amnt og O picked up by each g of the animal
- weight of animal/ total O consumption
- lg animals smaller than small animals
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Term
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Definition
- log both scales (O consumption and mass)
- slope = -0.25
- Vo2/Mb= 0.676 x Mb^-0.25
- predictive model
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Term
| Total O consumption curve |
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Definition
- slope is 0.75
- Vo2 = 0.676 x Mb^0.75
- log of both x and y-axis
- mammals and birds
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Term
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Definition
- animals other than mammals
- consistent relationshiy btwn mass and metabolic rate
- slope = 0.75
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Term
| Max Rubner S.A. hypothesis |
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Definition
- endothermic animals metabolic rate are proportional to body S.A. b/c rate of heat transferred from body to outside has to be equated w/amnt of S.A. we have
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Term
| McMahon and Bonner's Cross-sectional area hypothesis |
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Definition
- cross-sectional area the approximate scale index matches 0.75 much closer
- w/cross sectional area looking @ support tissues (connective) which require less O
- lg animal bones take up more area
- ^ connective tissue, metabolic rates should go down b/c don't require much O
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Term
| Swan's Additive Scaling Hypothesis |
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Definition
- used Rubner's hypothesis
- optimize metabolic rate based on 2 or more factors: cross-sectional area and metabolic rate
- manipulted #s
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Term
| Blum's 4 dimensional analysis |
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Definition
- rubner's hypothesis
- 4 dimensions, 4th being time
- thermal profiles over time
- only used ex. that fit his model
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Term
| Sernetz's Fractal Scaling-Hypothesis |
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Definition
- get a fractal to reconcile all factors
- used endpoints to describe process
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Term
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Definition
- no environmental entity that is more important than temp
- temp is abiotic master factor
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Term
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Definition
- particles having higher energy at or near activation are distributed disproportionally
- when you add heat to any rxn mix, the change in rxn rate is not linear
- logarithmic change
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Term
|
Definition
- for every 10 degree ^ in temp, the rate function doubles
- poikilotherms
- log(slope)=2
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Term
|
Definition
- endotherms
- don't haveto expend energy to maintain body temp
- just have to make behavioral shifts
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Term
|
Definition
- body temp up, will start sweatingand ^ metabolic rate
- insulation minimized
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Term
|
Definition
- insulation maximized
- have to shiver, metabolic rate go up
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Term
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Definition
- Precht Type 4
- an animal is transferred from 1 temp to another; immediate energy transfer
- log of slope = 2
- metabolic rate doubles
- ectotherms
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
- Precht type III
- slope = 1-2
- most animals do not completely compensate b/c it is a very complex process
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Term
|
Definition
- estivation state
- Precht type I
- lowers metabolic rate at higher temperature
- resting state that allows them to survive a long time in harsh conditions
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Term
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Definition
- Precht type V
- never happens in nature moving from low to high temp
- moving from high to low temp it can happen b/c now we have low metabolic rate at low temp
- brumation
- ectotherms
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Term
| How endotherms maintain higher body temps than ectotherms |
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Definition
- leaky membranes- make more heat b/c more sodium potassium pumps constantly working
- insulation: fur, fat, feathers
- efficient circulation: 4 chambered heart, shunting, counter current heat exchange
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Term
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Definition
- Female indian python: antagonistic muscle contraction somewhat involuntary
- Honeybee swarm: hive temp ^, kill intruder wasps; mvmnt from outside to inside
- sphynx moth and dragonflies: blood flow cut to abdomen to lower heat loss, causes flight muscles in thorax to warm up; not efficient and energetically expensive
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Term
| Nonshivering thermogenesis |
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Definition
- endotherms
- Brown adipose tissue (BAT)- specialized for metabolic heat production
- releases heat from a futile mitochondrial e- transport cycle that produces heat w/out the necessity of ATP synthesis
- rich blood supply, many mitochondria, substantial O supply, lipids in small vesicles
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Term
|
Definition
- Thermogenin protein makes inner mitochondrial membrane permeable to protons, no ATP being formed, energy comes off as heat
- fatty acid cycle across inner membrane collapse, pH and proton gradients lost, metabolic energy dissipated as heat
- in armpit (axilla), btwn shoulders, under sternum of hibernating animals, newborn mammals, and cold climatixed adults
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Term
|
Definition
- controlled by photoperiod
- too little to migrate and too big to survive on stored fat
- mammals
- dual set-point regulatory: 37 in summer, 4-5 in winter
- hypothalamus; thermostat of body
- controlled by endocrine system
- drops below 4-5, wake up to warm up a bit
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Term
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Definition
- descrease in metabolism, respiration, and heart rate
- small mammals or birds w/very high specific metabolic rates
- to survive they allow body to become hypothermic; temp drops too low they will raise their metabolic rate
- metabolism reduced by 95%
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Term
|
Definition
- bears
- easily aroused and often ective in winter
- body temp fluctuates but not as low as true hibernators
- do not eat, drink, urinate (kidneys shut down), or deficate
- pregnant polar bear moms will nurse
- recycle calcium to prevent bone loss
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Term
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Definition
- maintain different temps at different parts of body
- duck feet tend to have high S.A. to volume ratio and high heat loss
- birds can walk around on frozen ice b/c feet near freezing temp while body is ~ 37
- Do this by counter current heat exchange
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Term
| Counter Current Heat Exchange |
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Definition
- Ducks
- warm arterial blood flows in opposite direction of cool venous blood
- conductive heat transfer across the walls so that heat lost from arterial blood goes to venous blood returning to body
- parallel; conserves heat
- energetically inefficient to keep durign summer
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Term
| warm bodies fishes and the wonderful net |
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Definition
- blood carries heat and when heat hits the gills it is lost
- Rete picks up heat so when blood hits gills, the blood is water temp and no heat lost
- found in lamnid sharks and tuna
- use counter current exchange to reduce heat exchange across gill
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Term
|
Definition
- net located btwn gills, heart, core, and periphery
- "net"
- does not have the same amnt of control like in birds
- heat conservation limited to certain parts of body
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