1. Source (encoding)

2. Receiver (decoding)

3. Channel

4. Message (verbal or non-verbal)

5. Feedback (the response of the reciver to the sender)

6. Noise (any interruption in the communication process; can be internal or external)

7. Context

1. Linear- a one way (teacher-->student)

2. Interactive- back and forth (teacher <--> student)

3. Transactional- both are encoding/decoding at the same time (it is ongoing and irreversible)

Give an example of the following:

1. a spoken verbal message

2. a spoken non verbal message

3. a written berbal message

4. a written non berbal message

1. a spoken verbal message= speaking

2. a spoken non verbal message= yawning

3. a written berbal message= a letter

4. a written non berbal message= a logo

Definition: A body of statements that present a clear rounded and systematice view of a subject.

Represents human view points at a high level of abstraction

1. Laws Perspective- (All A's are B's under condition 1,2,3...)

2. Systems Perspective- (A effects B effects C effects...)

3. Rules Perspective- (A does B to bring about C)

1. Normal- listing

2. Ordinal- rank ordering

3. Interval- statistically wieghted (*most valuable data)

1. Statement of problem (a tentative hypothesis)

2. Observation

3. Classification

4. Generalization

1. to organize info

2. to focus and summarize

3. to observe and clarify

4. to explain and predict (best theories will predict)

5. to generate research

6. to facilitate communication

7. to enable control

Criteria for evaluating theories

(*not all criteria will be met, but the more the better)

1. Clear

2. Simple

3. Coherent and makes sense

4. Original

5. Knowledge integration

6. Widely applicable

7. Testable

8. Able to predict

9. Comprehensive

10. Flexible and open to change

1. Open System (connects all together; ex: your body)

2. Closed System

1. Information- reduces uncertainty

2. Entropy-the degree of uncertainty

3. Piece-a unit of info

4. Bit- reduces alternative in half (called a binary when 2 options are being cut in half)

5. Turbulence- degree of stability/instability in the environments (effects entropy)

6. Information Load-quantity of info combined with relative difficulty in transmission (burnout may happen because of overload or underload)

7. Undertainty Reduction- people seek info to reduce undertainty. They may also create undertainty by the info they transmit)

Definition: Reduces uncertainty by increasing one's knowledge of social situations

(*How do you behave in certain social situations?)

1. goal parameters

2. control center (sensor, comparator, activator)

3. feedback (negative or positive)

4. corrective action capability

Theories of Verbal Coding:

SIGN

A stimulus that has meaning for people

Theories of Verbal Coding:

MESSAGES

Signs and groups of signs shaped through human thought processes

Theories of Verbal Coding

SIGNAL

Indicates the presence of an onject other than itself, time and context bound

Theories of Verbal Coding:

SYMBOL

Arouses in a person a conception of the object, event or condition (context free)

Theories of Verbal Coding:

CODING

The process of reelating signs to their referents

Theories of Verbal Coding:

SEMANTICS

How signs relate to things (meanings)

Theories of Verbal Coding:

PRAGMATICS

How signs effect human behavior

Theories of Verbal Coding:

SYNTACTIC

Signs relating to other signs

• Language is a structured sequence of speech sounds organized through rules or syntax
• Speakers of language must acquire an intuitive knowlege of grammar
• People must be able to use their knowledge of grammar to create and understand movel sentences

Psychological Approaches to Language

(Behavioristic Approach)

• stimulus response
• conditioned/reinforced
• affected by use frequency

Psychological Approaches to Language

(Generative Grammar Approach)

• concerned with novel sentences
• conceives the ideal speaker/listener
• competence and performance

1. Deep Structure- an abstract sentence mostly in the mind of the speaker

2. Surface Structure- produced from deep structre through transformations

*Language Acquistion (Behaviorist=learned/ Nativist=innate)

Thinking involves conceptual behavior.

2 broad approaches to concept information:

1. Behavioristic

2. Cognitive School

1. Concept formation- learning concepts

2. Concept utilization- their use in life

3. Cybernetic approach- Thinking involves planning/ thinking is a cybernetic mechanism sense feedback and adjusts/ developed the TOTE model: Test, Operate, Test, Exit)

Jean Piaget

(Development)

• Thinking involves a logic of relation which matures through childhood
• The key to intelligence and/or thinking is reversibility to flexibility of thought.

Jean Piaget

4 Stages of Development:

1. Birth to 2 years: (Sensorimotor)= symbol use is concrete. Works with objects.

2. 2 years to 7/8 years: (Pre-Operational)=separates self from environment; comes to know the difference bewtween symbol and object, but cannot generalize.

3. 8 to 12 years: (Concrete Operational)=develops reversibility and relational thinking/hypothetical thought

4. 12 years to adulthood: (Formal Operational)= manipuates purely abstract symbols like higher math or philosophy

Reflective Thinking Approach (Dewey)

Dewey's Problem Solving Squence:

• Thinking involves problem solving

1. Suggestion= identification of a problem
2. Intellectualization= careful definition
3. Formulation of hypothesis= calculation of possible solution(s)
4. Reasoning= advantages and disadvantages (consequences of solution)
5. Testing= seeing the consequences of the solution

Theory of "The Image." -Kenneth Boulding

The Image (frame of reference) or view of the world is the net effect of an individual's experience: dynamic and in flux

• Remains unaffected
• Additions to the image occur
• Changes in the image (area of persuasion)
• Clarified or confused

• Meaning comes from the interaction between person and environment; part shared/part private
• Language is the vehicle for meaning
• Meaning is not intrinsic to the person or the object
• Perception is influenced by a person's notion of how they should respond
• Notion of "accumulated mind" and the "minding" process
• Emphasis on interrelatedness of perception, meaning and language
• Objects; have potentiality and essence; meaning derives from the representation of object/referent
• The symbol shapes experience (ex: stop sign)

• Tried to discover the ways in which symbols help or hinder us in reflecting on things
• There is an indirectness of the relations of words and things- words mean nothing in themselves. Only when a thinker makes use of them do they mean anything.

Triangle of Meaning

3 Elements interrelate to establish meaning:

1. Thought
2. Symbol
3. Referent

1. Scientific= language that communicates description of the referent
2. Emotive= Language that communicates feeling about the referent (such as poetry or music)
3. Mixed= middle range on the continuum

1. Osgood sought to define and measure the behaviors in the person elicited by sign stiumli
2. Overt behavior is mediated by internal responses (meanings)
3. Meaning is learned internal responses to stimuli (signs) which are associated with other stimuli (referents)
4. The mediated internal responses are learned and associated to referents (ex: cobra, moon, grass)

Triangle of Meaning

(Ogden-Richards)

drawing

Semantic Space

(Osgood Model)

drawing

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

of

Linguistic Relativity Principle

• "the language habits of our world predispose our thinking and certain choices of interpretation."
• Hopi Indians- present tense verbs only
• Sexism in language- a probable effect

• Language and culture are parallel
• Language is a symbolization of culture. People reach a common understanding through language
• Meaning resides in the structure of the language
• Different languages may divide experience differently (Ex: Japanese vs American forms of greetings)

• The structure of language use in everday life reflects and shapes the assumption of a social group
• relationships established in a social group that affect the type of speech used

1. Elaborated= Wide range of ways to say something(Think: Geeds. They can say greet however they want, unlike ATO's)
2. Restricted= (Think: Sorority) only certain people know what the code is. Narrow, context specific ways to express ideas.

Representational Theories:

Symbolic Interaction

4 general assumptions of Symbolic Interaction

1. The cooperative behavior of humans is unique
2. Human behavior and interaction is based on "intentions" which set humans apart from members of other cooperative behavioral systems
3. Gestures (verbal and nonverbal beavior) are symbols which convey individual intent
4. Human and infrahuman interaction are caused by different things (infrahuman=response is guided by instict. Human=response is guided by intentions or meanings)

Symbolic Interaction:

For humans, there must be some sort of mechanism where by each acting individual can:

1. Come to understand the lines of action of others.

2. Guide their own behavior to fit in with those lines of actions.

• mind, self, and society are the processes of personal and interpersonal interaction
• the persons definition of the situation is what determines behavior within the situation

Symbolic Interaction

3 processes of interaction:

1. Society
2. Self
3. Mind

Define: "Society"

in

Symbolic Interaction

• Composite of cooperative behavior
• Shared meaning

3 Stages of "Self"

in

Symbolic Interaction

1. Preparatory Stage
2. Play Stage
3. Game Stage

Define: "Mind"

in

Symbolic Interaction

• mental activity is cybernetic
• like a giant switchboard
• delays, organizes and responds

Symbolic Interaction

2 Schools of Thought

1. Chicago School (led by Herbert Blumer)

2. Iowa School (led by Manford Kuhn)

Symbolic Interaction

Chicago School (Blumer)

• 1937; Term "Symbolic Interaction"
• Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them. The meaning arises out of social interation
• Focused on the inter-linkage of societal actions
• inter-linkage=means that the joining of a group of people consists of the interdependence of thwier separate actions (essential to weddings, graduation, ward, etc.)
• Methodology: Humanistic/Qualitative

Symbolic Interaction

Iowa School (Kuhn)

• Major contributions: operationalizing the concepts of Mead
• Subfields include role theory, person perception, and interpersonal theory
• focused on the naming of objects, plans  of action, orientation others and the "self"
• Humans are active planners. Language is essential to thinking and communication
• Meaning comes from group norms
• Plan of action: person's totoal behavior toward an object
• Orientational Others provide: Emotional commitment, Roles, Self identification, Vocabulary
• Methodology: Scientific/Quantative Research

• uses the dramatic metaphor to explain communication behavior and the roles people play
• combined with methodologies of Kuhn and Blumer; a blend of quantitative and qualitative appraoches

• The ACT is the most basic concept
• People cannot only create symbols but can also talk about them
• Reality is mediated through symbols
• Consubstatiality or identification occurs when there is shared meaning

• A methodological tool for analysis used to discover the motivation in symbolic action
• Critical instrument designed to reduce statements of motives to the most fundamental level

1. Act
2. Scene
3. Agent
4. Agency
5. Purpose

Dramatistic Pentad

"Act"

• center of the pentad, around which all the other aspects of the pentad ciruclate
• "names what took place in thought or deed"

Dramatistic Pentad

"Scene"

• The when and where of the situation
• the background of the act

Dramatistic Pentad

"Agent"

• The agent of the pentad refers to the WHO of the situation
• what person or what kind of person performed the act?

Dramatistic Pentad

"Agency"

• The means of communications
• the channel(s) being used by the agent(s)

Dramatistic Pentad

"Purpose"

• The WHY of the situation or the motive for the act

• Serves as a motive, driving entities toward, "the completedness" of perfection
• Humans are corrupted with imperfections and even in language must seek perfection

• Though the hierarchic principle is inevitable, no particular hierarchy is inevitable
• Serves as a motivator as individuals struggle to rise or maintain position in socio-cultural hierchies

• We form identities through various properties or substances. Including physical objects, occupations, friends, activities, beliefs and values
• Occurs when two entities are united in substance through common ideas, attitudes, possessions or properties.

• Physical and experiential separation of individuals creates mystery in various ways
• Mystery has 2 important functions: (1. encourages maintenance and preservation of hierachy/ 2. it's used as an instrument of governance, cohesion, and preservation of the particular nature of a hierarchy)
• the phenomenon in which average people "bond" with noted figures such as MLK or Princess Diana

Narrative Theories

Symbolic Convergence Theory

• people's visions of reality are formed largely by stories that are created in interaction with other poeple
• the stories told in small groups are fantasy themes (fantasy themes consist of characters, plot lines, scenes, and sanctioning agents)
• a set of unified fantasy themes go together to paint an overall picture or rhetorical vision
• the rhetorical vision provides basic assumptions about reality
• fantasy themes are chained ou (told to others in societ)
• the sharing of fantasy themes results in a shared reality through the process of symbolic convergence

• Fisher believes that rationality of all types is based ultimately on narrative. Communication itself can be understood in terms of narrative
• the effectiveness of stories can be judged by TWO criteria (1. Coherence- the degree to which the story makes sense, has consisitency, and the characters are believable./ 2. Fidelity- the truthfulness or reliability of the story
• Narrative creates identification among people

General Semantics

Define: "Abstraction"

Definition: the process of leaving out details in perceiving, thinking about and labeling objects and events.

1. Projective- we see our win values as reality
2. MultiOrdinal- a word can mean a numner of things to different people
3. Time Binding Quality- can be communicated to tothers over time
4. Indexing- recognizing that student #1 is not student #2
5. Dating- recognizing that student #1 at 10:00AM is not student #1 at 9:00PM

3 fundamental notions about Abstraction:

(Wendall Johnson)

1. Non Identity- "A is not A" (The map is not the territory it represents)
2. Non Allness- No statement says all there is about an event
3. Self Reflexiveness- We abstract from abstractions infinitely

Critical Incident Techique

(Flanagan)

• Used to collect and analyze most memorable experiences (doesnt have to be most recent)
• has shown great relaibility and validity across different situations
• participants are asked to express the most pivotal percived moments in their lives (categorized as negative, mundane, or positive)
• includes open ended questions in the interviewing process that
• allows researches to test the Relational Health Communication Model through qualitative means

Critical Incident Technique

(Flanigan)

5 Interrelated Steps:

1. identify the activity to be studied
2. develop date collection standards
3. collect the data
4. analyze and classify data
5. interpret the data

Theories of Nonverbal Coding

Define: "Nonverbal Signs"

• involves bodily, spatial, and vocal behaviors
• the many nonverbal behaviors in a message are interrelated
• listen to what is not said/watch for deviations from known norms
• approx. 80% of all our communication behaviors is nonverbal
• nonverbal communication reveals our conscious and subconscious thoughts and feelings.

• classify nonverbal behavior in order to reveal the ways in chich nonverbal messages are structured.
• There are over 700,000 movements of the arms, torso, hands, legs, and feet that convey meaning.

Birdwhistell's Theory of Kinestics

(Body movement, facial expressions and gestures)

Birdwhistell developed 7 Assumptions:

1. no body movement or expression is without meaning in the context in which it appears
2. body posture, movement, and facial expressions are systematic and patterned and can be analyzed
3. bodily movement is a function of the social system
4. Visible bodily activity systematically influences the behavior of other members of any particular group
5. Nonverbal behavior in most cases has a communicative funtion
6. meaning is derived from relationship between the behavior and how it is investigated
7. idiosyncratic elements can only be assessed by analyzing the larger system

Theory of Proxemics (Space)

by Hall

Define: "Proxemics"

Theory of Proxemics

(Hall)

defined 3 basic types of space:

1. Fixted Feature- unmovable (ex: walls or rooms)
2. Semi Fixed Feature- how movable obstacles (ex: furniture) are arranged
3. Informal Space- personal territory around the body that travels with a person (their individual "bubble" which expands or shrinks depending upon the situation)

Theory of Proxemics

Standards

(are culturally bound)

1. Intimate Distance= 0 to 18 inches
2. Personal Distance= 18 inches to 4 feet
3. Social Distance= 4 to 12 feet
4. Public Distance= 12 feet and beyond

When people are involved in conversations, there are...

8 possible factors that are involved:

1. Posture/Sex Factors- male/female and how are they standing or sitting?
2. Sociofugal/Sociopetal Axis- how people are related to one another (one dominant/one passive)
3. Kinesthetic Factors- how are they looking at one another?
4. Touching Behavior- affectionate touching or fist fighting?
5. Visual Code- looking at eachother or no eye contact?
6. Olfactory Code-smell?
7. Voice Loudness- speaking softly or screaming?

Theory of Paralanguage (vocalic)

Trager

4 Types of Vocal Signs:

1. Vocal Qualities (pitch, range, articulation)
2. Vocal Characterizers (laughing, crying, sighing)
3. Vocal Qualifiers (manner in which words are spoken)
4. Vocal Segregates (non fluencies)

Functinoal Theories of Nonverbal Coding

3 Perspectives of approached nonverbal activity:

1. Origin- source of the act
2. Coding- relationship of the act to its meaning
3. Usage-communicative, interactive, informative

1. Emblems (verbal translation)
2. Illustrators (accent or emphasize)
3. Adaptors (facilitate release of bodily tension)
4. Regulators (used to coordinate interaction)
5. Affect Displays (display of emotions or feelings)

• Dittman explains "emotion" in terms of emotional deviation..that is, whether an emotional expression is a deviation from some baseline behavior
• we judge a person's behavior on the basis of how the behavior is different from what is usually seen in a particular individual and culture

Nonverbal Concept:

Define: "Artifacts"

Definition: objects that communicate (such as name brand clothing, luxury purses, cars, etc. / the meaning is assigned by the perceiver)

Nonverbal Concept:

Define: "Touch"

Definition: also called "haptics". An important element in interpersonal communication.

Nonverbal Concept:

Define: "Chronemics"

Definition: How time affects communication. (Some cultures are very time conscious and punctual, others are more flexible. Indivduals vary in their "prime time" for work and play

Nonverbal Concept:

Define: "Environmental Factors"

Definition: Other contextual elements such as color, comfort, temperature, amount of space and so forth affect communication outcomes.

Communication influences Change

Generalizations

• Communication results in change
• persuasion is the process of inducing change through communication
• change results from conditions in the person and in the message
• change occurs in beliefs, values, attitudes, behavior. These changes are interrelated and are facilitated by learning and inconsistency in their won original beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors
• the direction and extent of change are functions of internal mediators in the person
• change can be systematically resistant

Classical Rhetorical Theory

(Aristotle)

• Aristotle admonished "state your case and prove it!"
• Inartistic proofs: not speaker controlled
• Artisitc proofs: speaker controlled (ethos, pathos, and logos)
• Inductive and Deductive reasoning
• other aspects of public persuasion are delivery, style, and organization

"the art or faculty of discovering in any given case the available means of persuasion."

Motivated Sequence (taxonomy)

by Monroe

• Attention
• Need
• Satisfaction
• Visualization
• Action

• Was inteded to be an explanatory method to see which persuasive messages would most likely succeed
• ego inolvement- researchers found that high ego would alter whether or not a persuasive message would succeed

• People used to see themselves and their evnironment as consistent
• Inconsistency produces stress to restore equilibrium

• If a system is not in balance, there is a strain toward symmetry.
• People try to change their attitude toward the other person

• is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously.
• proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance.
• They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions.
• Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying.

1. Irrelevant
2. Consonant
3. Dissonant

• produces stress to change in order to reduce the dissonance
• people work to reduce dissonance and will avoid situations in which additional dissonance might be produced

• Importance of the decision
• Attractiveness of chosen and unchosen alternatives
• Similarity between choices (reduces dissonance)
• People will Add or Change information to to seek consanant

• explains how to keep original attitudes and beliefs consistent in the face of persuasion attempts
• explain more about how attitudes and beliefs change

Fallacy Argument

Ignorance

• Acting like you don't know what someone is talking about

Fallacy Argument

Special Pleading

• Using the arguments that support your position, but ignoring or disallowing the arguments against your position.

Fallacy Argument

Straw Man

• attacking your opponent's position with an exaggeraged, sarcastic statement

Fallacy Argument

Non-Sequitur

• Something that just doesn't follow
• (ex: "bill lives in a large building so his apartment must be large.")

Fallacy Argument

Slippery Slope

• the assumption that something is wrong because it is right next to something that is wrong. Or it is wrong because it could slide towards something that is wrong.

Fallacy Argument

Circular Reasoning

• refers to arguing for a conclusion that has already been assumed in the premise

Fallacy Argument

Bandwagon

• appealing to the popularity ("jump on the bandwagon!"