1. Encoding: how we transform sensory information from the environment into some form of mental representation

2. Storage: how we return information in memory

3. Retrieval: how we pull this information out of storage

1. Recall: tasks are very effortful and require the generation of response options (ie fill in the blank questions)
2. Recognition: less effortful because they DO NOT require the generation of options
3. Explicit: tasks that require conscious effort to remember; are aware of demands in your memory (ex asking a person when was the last time he/she watched the news)
4. Implicit: tasks that activate memory resources that we may not be consciously accessing

1. Free Recall: requires generation of items in any order
2. Serial Recall: requires repetition of items in and EXACT ORDER
3. Cued Recall: least effortful...since you're given (cues) some assistance

• a technique used to study implicit memory
• represents improved retrieval to recent exposure to the stimulus
• ex.._e_or_>memory

we have different types of stores for each type of memory

1. sensory register: very brief storage (senses)
2. STM: limited capacity for storage, control processes located here "active", generates behavior
3. LTM: unlimited, permanent storage

• the initial repository for much of the incoming information that will eventually enter our STM and/or LTM
• Iconic Store: a discrete visual sensory register that holds info for very short periods of time (brief, fades quickly, flash of image, can remember process)
• information is stored in the form of icons...visual images that represent something

• investigated the iconic sensory store/ how much info we can encode with a brief glance at a stimulus
• whole report method vs partial report method
• -whole report- when ppl report every symbol they see...problem was that people knew more than they could report, these other items degraded as they were reporting the other items
• -partial report-cued participants report only part of what they see...he would multiply the number recalled by number of lines to get a more accurate number
• delay of the recall time, even by only 1 second reduced number of items recalled to 4 or 5 of the 12
• findings suggest that the sensory store can hold about 9 items but they decay rapidly (partial technique)

STM: not only temporarily stores info, but keeps this info active through a series of controlled processes

• Rehearsal is necessary to keep items in STM

1. Elaborative: used to keep info for a longer period of time. Ties new info to old info that has already been learned and is in LTM; attached to old information
2. Maintenance: simple repetition like remembering a phone number, and typically forgetten immediately when finished

1. Activity

-STM: active -LTM: inactive

2. Access

-STM: rapid -LTM: slower

3. Capacity:

-STM: limited (7+/-2) -LTM: unlimited (?)

4. Forgetting

-STM: rapid -LTM:slower

5. Maintenance

-STM: requires rehearsal -LTM: built in

6. Coding (how info is stored)

-STM: surface -LTM: conceptual

• Yes, in a way
• chunking: condensing large numbers of items into meaningful pieces of info which are integrated that remembering a piece of a chunk will help you remember
• they found that after 18 seconds (of distracting)  the trigrams are almost completely forgotten

• Brown (1958) in England & Peterson (1959) in the U.S
• investigated the rapid forgetting of items in STM following distraction
• task: 1) P sees a constant trigram (2) P sees a distractor "492" then have to count backwards by 3s (3) after a period of time, P repeats the trigram they encountered; results viewed as a simple way to study forgetting....interpreted in terms of trace decay (natural fading)
• inference may play a part in disrupting one memory with another, similar memory

• when does the forgetting occur with relation to when the items are presented?

1. Primacy Effect- superior recall of words that were presented first in the list (due to rehearsal typically)
2. Recency Effect- good recall of words that were presented last reflects that they're still in SMT most likely

-Alan Baddeley

4 Primary components

1. central executive- controlling attentional system which coordinates the slave  systems and responses (controls everything)

2. visuospatial sketchpad- manipulates and stores (briefly) visual images

3. Phonological Loop- holds auditory info such as inner speech and acoustic rehersal

4. Episodic Buffer- acts to bind info from the other systems so we can attend to a unified representation

1. Phonological Store- holds speech based info into memory (external speech)

2. Articulatory Control Process- inner speech things we control (inner thoughts)

-memory does not consist of a number of separable stores as we have been describing it

-storage varies in terms of the depth of encoding (the more deeply we encode info, the higher the likelihood that this material can be retrieved later)

1. Structural/Physical- based on physical characteristics of a word (what it looks like)

2. Phonetic/Acoustic- deep sound combinations associated w/ words (pronounciation) 

3. Semantic- deepest encoding where we think about the meaning of a word

-Problems of measurement-how do we measure what is deep processing & what is shallow? No conclusions as of yet

-serial stages assumption- LOP suggests a serial progression through the 3 stages from structural to phonetic to semantic.

-we know we get info from all 3 types or processing. the brain tends not to work in a serial fashion but more in parallel.

-overspill coding- we always have access to semantic memory whether we are aware or not

-Tulving & Thompson (1973): Encoding Specificity Hypothesis:

-what is recalled depends on what is encoded---> recall is better than recognition

- state dependent learning- if you study in the same state that you will take the test in, performance will be better

*recall is best when study context matches recall context

-Endel Tulving (1972)

2 kinds of explicit memory

1. semantic memory- stores general world knowledge. memory for facts that are not unique to use and that are not recalled in any particular temporal context. ie viewing the classroom & instructor viewing it

2. episodic memory- stores personally experienced events/episodes; used when we need to rem something important at a particular time/place

-mnemonist- someone who demonstrates extraordinary memory abilities; usually based on special techniques for memory enhancement

*Amnesia- severe loss of explicit memory...different types

1)Retrograde: trauma occurs & the person cannot remember events prior to the trauma. Fairly common w/ concussions, although is typically mild in this case

2)Anterograde: inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event

3)Infantile: inability to recall events that happened during our earliest years of life. Extremely rare for someone to remember things before 3 years of age

-Alzheimer's Disease: older adults, causes dementia and progressive memory loss; typically recognized on the basis of loss of intellectual function in everyday life; shows plaques and tangles in the brain that are not present in a healthy brain;densed deposits; deficients in eposidic & semantic memory

Aricept-drug used to help slow the progression. has shown that at best may slightly slow progression

how you transform a physical sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory

1. short term storage- uses different codes (visual, acoustic, semantic) senses; lumps everything into unified memory
2. long term storage- primarily semantic coding; lumping things into unified meaning and relating it into other things w/ that memory

Declarative memories are more likely to transfer to LTM than nondeclarative (explicit)

*nondeclarative memories enter into LTM usually due to repeated practice or conditioning

-deliberately attending to info

-consolidation: making connections or associations btwn new & old info

• 1885 observed that the distribution of study (rehearsal) sessions over time affects the consolidation of info in LTM
• observed memories tend to be good when P's used distributed practice and not so good when massed practice was used...spacing effect

learning in which various sessions are spaced over time

*better

-this is called the spacing effect...greater distribution of learning trials over time leads to more effective memories

• categorical clustering: organizes a list of items into a set of categories (grocery list)
• interactive images: we imagine, as vivid as possible, the objects represented by the words one has to remember interacting with each other (telling a story)
• pegword:used when ordered/number info needs to be remembered; rhyming words to numbers
• method loci: visualize yourself walking around an area w/ distinctive landmarks that you know well, then link various landmarks to specific items to be remembered (building collapsing)
• acronym: when we devise a word/expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain concept ( I AM PACK)
• acrostic: when we form a sentence rather than a single word to help remember new words
• keyword system: we form an interactive image that links the sound & meaning of a  foreign word w/ the sound & meaning of a familiar word (beurre>bear)

• most of the time we're trying to improve our retrospective memory (our memory for things of the past)
• sometimes also try to improve out Prospective memory (our memory for things we need to do or remember for the future

• from STM- Parallel vs Serial Processing
• Parallel: simultaneous handling of multiple operations; all items retrieved at once (retrieving all 26 letters of ABCs at once)
• Serial: operations done one after another; items retrieved in success; takes longer to retrieve all items than parallel (going thru ABC list one by one in order)

1. Exhaustive: the participants always checks the test digit against all digits, even if a match was found partway through the list
2. Self-Terminating: the participants checks the test digit against only those digits needed to make a response

-cued recalled vs serial recall

• cued is better than serial
• from this, we can infer that errors in LTM recall are typically the result of retrieval failures rather than the storage failures

Availability vs Accessibility

1. Availability: the presence of info stored into LTM; is it there or not; if problem w/ availability it's not there
2. Accessibility: how we gain access to the available info

• Forgetting
• 2 Most well known theories

1. Interference: competing info causes us to forget something
2. Decay: passage of time causes forgetting

1. retroactive: caused by activity occurring after we learn something but before we are asked to recall the learning thing
2. proactive: caused activity occurring before we learn something rather than after it is learned
3. primacy: recall for words heard at the beginning of a list is superior
4. recency: recall for words heard at the end of a list is superior

• words at the beginning of a list...subject to retroactives interference but not proactive
• words at the end of a list....subject to proactive interference, but not retroactive
• words in the middle...subject to both types of interference, hence the worst recall

• information is forgotten due to gradual disappearance 
• the other major theory of forgetting
• difficult to test/research bc prevents rehearsal, which causes interference, can't really prevent rehearsal

• Reconstructive: we use strategies to retrieve the original traces and then rebuild these info into the original memory
• Constructive: prior experience affects how we recall things and what we actually recall from memory (personal bias affects our memory)

• memory of an person's history;constructive; you rem your construction/reconstruction of what happened
• diary studies: individuals keeps detailed autobiographies, or diaries (typically good bc it probably happened to you; affects memory & your options of your memory)

1. Transience:memory fades quickly
2. Absent-mindedness: repeated actions, etc check mail; realize already did it
3. Blocking: similar to "tip of the tongue" for some reason, it's being blocked; issue w/ accesibility
4. Misattribution: where did I hear that?
5. Suggestibility: if something is suggested, we're likely to believe it
6. Bias: personal experiences or beliefs
7. Persistence: remembering things as significant that may or may not be

• Experts & schemas- fills in gaps when provided with partial/distorted info and visualize concrete aspects of info (cognitive context); confidence in recollective memories
• 
  

1. perceived clarity richness of detail of the experience & content
2. have greater confidence when we are able to recall something in greater detail

memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers it as vividly as if it were perfectly preserved

*role of emotion is important here

• the fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge: an idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world
• how we categorize things
• declarative vs procedural

• knowledge of facts that can be stated: a concept that functions to organize or point out aspects of equivalence among other concepts (ex writing your signature---> letters)
• we organize concepts into categories

• Schema: mental framework for representing knowledge that encompasses an array of interrelated concepts in a meaningful organization 
• sub-schemas; generic knowledge; varies by person
• problem: they can give rise to stereotypes

1. Natural Categories: groupings that occur naturally in the world. Ex: trees, birds, anything not manmade
2. Artifact Categories: groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions. Ex: kitchen appliances, cars

• both are relatively stable

• Feature Based Theory: necessary and sufficient defining features must be present; ex of a bachelor (male, unmarried, adult)
• Prototype Theory: the original item where subsequent models are based Ex: fruits have seeds, pulp, & skin...tomatoes
• What's the verdict? Synthesis of both feature based and prototype theories 

• schema: metal framework for organizing knowledge
• creates meaningful structure of related concepts
• can include other schemas (ex schema for animals includes cats, dogs, fish, etc)
• can encompass typical, general facts that are slightly diff from each other (ex mammals are furry; what about humans?)
• varies in degree of abstraction (schema for justice is more abstract than a schema for an apple)

• describes appropriate sequences of events in a certain context
• less flexible schemas 
• includes default values for actors, props, setting and sequence of events that are expected to occur
• Ex: restaurant script

• the form of sets of rules governing productions
• involves serial processing (linear sequence of operations at one time)
• use of productions to organize this type of knowledge
• routines & subroutines 

• instructions regarding procedures for implementing a task or a subtask within a larger task 

• procedural knowledge
• a generation and output of a procedure
• made up of the entire set of rules (productions) for executing a task or using the specific skill
• if then clause

• Ex: cars---> if your car runs out of fuel, then get some more gas; if it is cold outside, then put on a jacket;

• adaptive control of thought rational
• another knowledge representation model
• declarative knowledge=network representation
• procedural knowledge=production system
• networks include images and corresponding spatial configurations/relationships
• includes temporal (time), info, relationships involving sequencing, events, or the order in which things appear
• each node can be either activated (on) or inactive (off) at anytime
• nodes can be activated...directly by external stimuli (sensations); internal stimuli (memories, thought processes)
• indirectly by the activity of one or more neighboring nodes

• ACT-R
• activation that spreads but along a set of nodes within a given network (ex when the word "mouse" is activated cat is also"

• network based model
• we handle large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain
• different from semantic network model bc it's comprised of neuron like units and they themselves don't  represent concepts (neurophysiology to model cognition)
• *the pattern of the connections represents the knowledge, not the concepts

• the form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on, that exist outside of your mind
• an internal, personal depiction of something external

• some knowledge is best represented in mental pics (physical/spactial)
• pictures show more concrete attributes similar to the properties of real world object it represents
• other knowledge is best represented in more symbolic forms, like words or abstract propositions
• Ex: what's the shape of an egg? What's justice?

• imagery: the mental representation of things that are NOT currently being sensed by the sense organs; 
• they aren't immediately available but we can still imagine them
• can also sometimes represent things that we have never personally observed by our senses (ice cream: color, taste, coldness)
• most research focuses on visual imagery; according to research visual images are used and reported much more than other senses
• according to researchers, to solve problems & answer certain questions, we visualize the objects in question...we represent them mentally

• mental manipulation
• although visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to visual perception
• although we don't construct images that are exactly identical to what we perceive, we do construct images that are equal to percept
• mental construct within the mind (how we change things mentally)

• mental rotation: rotationally transforming an object's visual mental image (2D & 3D tetris)

• Mental Manipulations-Phenomena

• Mental Manipulations-Phenomena
• our mental images in ways that are functionally equivalent to our representations & uses of things we perceive
• limits on resolution (ability to distinguish elements) clarity of details
• research concerning the idea of "how do i know the size of the image your recreating in your mind?"

• mental manipulations-phenomena
• images can be scanned much like we visually scan our environment
• our strategies and responses show be functionally equivalent

3 forms of mental representations

1. proposition: fully abstracted representations of meaning that are verbally expressible
2. mental models: knowledge structures that people construct to understand & explain their experiences; constrained by person's theories about their experiences
3. images: specific representations; retain memory of the perceptual features of the objects

• Visual imagery: the use visual characteristics (color, shape,)
• Spacial imagery: spacial features such as depth, dimensions, distances, & orientations

• suffered a head injury, damaging parts of his temporal frontal, & occipital lobes
• despite these injuries, was still able to satisfactorily copy pictures...but could not recognize any of the pictures
• he could not link verbal labels to the objects pictured
• but, showed normal abilities in rotation, scanning, scaling, and other tasks

• the use of an organized means of combining words in order to communicate

• Psycholinguistics: psychology of our language as it interacts with the human mind

1. interpersonal/communicative: goal of language is to communicate btwn two or more people
2. symbolic: symbols of language are arbitrary. the words we use don not have to stand for what they represent.
3. meaningful: each word expresses a meaningful idea or concept.
4. referential: particular symbols (words/signs) refer to something in the world. ie "dog"
5. structured: implicit rules about how sentences are put together. Ex word order
6. multiplicity of structure: words can have more than one meaning, and say the same thing in many ways. ex: the word "cool"
7. creative/productive: can use language to produce an infinite number of unique phrases and sentences
8. dynamic: language is constantly evolving; new words and phrases are added into common language. ex "google" "facebook"

1. decoding: deriving meaning from whatever symbolic reference system (words) is being used. ex listening, reading. taking it in and making some sense of info
2. encoding:transforming our thoughts into a linguistic output. ex speech, signing, writing. *describes semantic encoding/decoding.
3. verbal comprehension: ability to understand written & spoken linguistic input (words, sentences, paragraphs, etc); varies by person, age, etc
4. verbal fluency: the expressive ability to produce linguistic output in the form of spoken or written output; varies by person, age, etc

• Phonology: the study of how sounds are organized in language. ie which sounds go in order to create words.
• Phonemes: the smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance from another in a given language. *15 in Hawaiian lang & 12 letters; 46 Eng & 26 letters
• Phonological rules: general statements about the relationship btwn sounds; acquired impilicity. ex certain sounds can't be next to each other

• Morpheme: marks meaning within a particular language. ex the word "crypt". not all morphemes are words. words consist of/ or more morphemes
• Morphology: rules that govern how we combine morphemes

• Content Morphemes: morphemes that carry out meaning

• Function Morphemes: helps the content morphemes fit into the grammatical concept. ex article conjunctions like "and"

• Lexicon: the entire set of morphemes in a given language or in a given person's linguistic repertoire (arsenal)
• Average adult English speaker...80,000 morphemes
• language is powerful; the word study >student > studious > studied etc
• by attaching just a few morphemes to a root content morpheme

• Syntax: refers to the way in which users of a particular language put words together to form sentences; grammatical rules learned in school
• Semantics: the study of meaning in language (of each word, morpheme, entire sentences, etc); concerned w/ how words and sentences express meaning

Language Comprehension

How do we understand language given how complex and diverse it can become?

• Speech Perception: making sense from spoken words/phrases
• *vital to human language use.
• is speech special among the different types of sounds we can perceive?
• can perceive speech rapidly...up to 50 phonemes per second

• Coarticulation: when phonemes or other units of speech are produced in a way that overlaps them in time
• articulations of the phonemes coincide, overlap, and blend boundaries
• may seem to create problems, but it actually provides for effective processing of language

• we can't acquire all of these complex phonemes, morphemes, words, structural/grammatical rules at once
• things happen over time, we gradually acquire our language skills

• they are not discrete, there are no set age(s) but they always occur in the same order
• Nature vs Nurture debate: incorporates the understanding that acquiring language involves a natural endowment that is modified by the environment
• these stages seem to be universal
• research has show that: newborns prefer their mother's voices and prefer to list to speech of their soon-to-be language rather than a soon-to-be secondary language

1. Prelinguistic Stage
2. One-word Utterances
3. Two-word Utterances
4. Three-word Utterances & Beyond

1. Age: birth to 18 months
2. Characteristics: crying, vocal play, babbling
3. Reflexive crying: conveys status (hungry, thirsty, needs changing)
4. Cooing: the infant's oral expression that explores the production of vowel sounds
5. Laughter: in response to people or things
6. Vocal play: can be interactive or listening to themselves
7. Babbling: an infant's preferential production, largely of the phonemes characteristic of his/ her own language

• • reduplicative babbling: repetitions of a single syllable. ex "da da"
• nonreduplicative babbling: free combinations of several syllables

***Loss of discrimination of sounds from other (non-native) languages start to show; as they grow older lose of the capacity to make discriminations that are not relevant to their native language(s)

• words=symbolic representations, relationship btwn the word and what it represents is arbitrary 
• spacial info has to be more explicitly described when using words alone
• can capture abstract and categorical info symbollically

• age: 12-18 months
• holophrases: one word that is meant to convey a whole sentences meaning (wants, needs, demands) ex Key! key! key!
• general nominals: doggie, juice, milk
• important words: mama, dada
• action words: up, give
• overextension: overextending meaning of a word
• underextension:

• age: 18monts to 2years
• telegraphic speech: they tend to include the important words and leave out the rest...ex more juice
• 18 months (3-100 words)

• age: 2-2.5 years old
• they begin to acquire more grammatical rules
• increased use of syntax
• overregularizations: occurs when rule is applied more widely than it should be. A regular morpheme ending is added to both regular & irregular verbs...ex I went--> I goed.

• Wugs
• children understand certain rules like plurals 

1. imitation: children do exactly what they see/hear others do
2. modeling: use others' speech patterns and vocabularies and using it for their own content
3. conditioning: kids hear sounds (words), associate those w/ objects/events in their environment; they respond to those sounds and are rewarded for doing it correctly

• easily learned...at birth
• they tend to make the same kinds of errors (overgeneralize rules)

• Reinforcement: adults react differently to different sounds emitted by infants, thus they can increase the frequency of sounds that move close approximate language sounds just like conditioning
• social interactions: interactions btwn the child and other speakers, when effective, will strengthen the child's confidence in his/her use of language