Term
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Definition
| emphasizes the role of experience in the acquisition of knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| emphasizes the role of innate factors in the acquisition of knowledge |
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Term
| Reaction time (RT) experiment |
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Definition
| measures interval between stimulus presentation and person’s response time |
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Term
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Definition
| participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears |
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Definition
| participant pushes one button if the light is on right side, another if light is on the left side |
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Term
| Choice RT time – Simple RT = |
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Definition
| time to make a decision (choice RT is 1/10th of a sec longer than simple RT |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental responses cannot be measured directly but can be inferred from behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Read list of nonsense syllables aloud to determine # of reps necessary to repeat list without errors |
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Term
| Short intervals = fewer repetitions to relearn |
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Definition
| Savings = [(initial repetitions) – (relearning repetitions)] / (initial repetitions) |
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Term
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Definition
| shows savings as a function of retention interval |
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Term
| What is cognitive psychology? |
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Definition
| Branch of psychology that focuses on scientific study of the mind |
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Term
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Definition
| Goal to identify laws/principles explaining immediate conscious experience |
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Term
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Definition
| Experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations |
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Term
| Any conscious thought/ idea defined in terms of four properties: |
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Definition
| Mode, quality, intensity, duration |
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Term
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Definition
| approach used to identify core elements |
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Term
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Definition
| Two criticisms: 1. 1. Extremely variable results from person to person and 2. 2. Results/invisible inner mental processes difficult to verify |
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Term
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Definition
| Correlation matrix table on PPT |
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Term
| Psychometric theory derived from factor analysis |
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Definition
| Examine relationships between tasks to determine which are similar/different |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Approximate translation = |
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Definition
| “configuration” or “shape” |
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Term
| Psychological phenomenon has to be studied in its entirety |
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Definition
| Mind imposes its own structure and organization on stimuli with tendency to organize perceptions into wholes |
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Term
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Definition
| Eliminate the mind as a topic of study |
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Term
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Definition
| Key point: emphasis on stimulus-response connection without inferring cognition |
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Term
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Definition
| Shape behavior by rewards or punishments |
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Term
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Definition
| Language determined by inborn biological program |
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Term
| Information-processing approach |
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Definition
| A way to study the mind created from insights associated with the digital computer |
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Term
| Shift from stimulus-response relationships to |
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Definition
| an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind |
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Term
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Definition
| Information processed in stages |
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Term
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Definition
| Flow diagram/model representing what happens as a person directs attention to one stimulus |
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Term
| Unattended information does not pass through the filter |
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Definition
| Input à filter à detector à to memory (attention model) |
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Term
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Definition
| information processed in stages; Trace the sequence of mental operations involved in cognition |
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Term
| Behavior/Physiological approach |
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Definition
| To understand complex cognitive behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| measure relationship between stimuli and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| measure relationship between physiology and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| If processing is disrupted, recent memories can fail to consolidate |
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Definition
| Sleep group exhibited greater recall of information; c. New information can interfere with memory consolidation |
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Term
| Cognitive Neuroscience and Localization |
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Definition
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Term
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) |
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Definition
| Blood flow increases in areas of the brain activated by a cognitive task, Radioactive tracer is injected into person’s bloodstream, Measures signal from tracer at each location of the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| measures brain activity before and during stimulation presentation; i. Difference between activation determines what areas of the brain are active during manipulation |
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Term
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
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Definition
| Utilizes subtraction technique, ii. Measures blood flow through magnetic properties of blood, 1. Hemoglobin molecules carry oxygen and contain an iron molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| more accurate, no radioactive tracer needed |
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Term
| Event-Related Potential (ERP) |
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Definition
| Measure electrical activity on the scalp and infer underlying brain activity |
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Term
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Definition
| continuous and rapid measurements, i. Ideal for processes like understanding conversations |
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Term
|
Definition
| does not give precise location |
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Term
| Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTO) |
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Definition
| Water diffuses more rapidly in the direction aligned with internal structure, b. Principal direction of the diffusion tensor can be used to infer the white-matter connectivity of the brain |
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Term
| Building blocks of the nervous system |
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Definition
| Golgi stains were developed in the 1870s, made it possible to stain a single cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| cells specialized to receive and transmit information in the nervous system. Each neuron has a cell body, an axon, and dendrites |
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Term
|
Definition
| (1) Neurons are the basic building blocks of the brain, ii. (2) Individuals cells transmit signals in the nervous system |
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Term
|
Definition
| Neurons serving different cognitive functions transmit signals to different areas of the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| contains mechanisms to keep cell alive |
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Term
|
Definition
| tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal to other neurons |
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Term
|
Definition
| multiple branches reaching from the cell body, which receives information from other neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| specialized to respond to information received from the senses |
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Term
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Definition
| electrical signal that is transmitted down the axon of that neuron to the dendrites of another neuron; primary mechanism by which information is transmitted throughout the nervous system; be aware…communication between neurons is much more complicated |
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Term
| Measuring action potentials |
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Definition
| the size is not measured, it is the frequency/rate that matters (low intensity: slow firing, high intensity: fast firing) |
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Term
| Sensory/neural adaptation |
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Definition
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Term
| Constant intensity generally declines with time |
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Definition
| Occurs across senses, with the exception of pain, which minimally adapts (if at all) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Concept of “neurologic noise”, we are not willing maintain a prolonged state of sensory stimulation |
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Term
| Thalamus and receptor site itself filter out irrelevant information |
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Definition
| Long-term stimulation of constant intensity will force the receptor to adapt and not make notice of the stimuli |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| space between axon of one neuron and dendrite of another; when the action potential reaches the end of the axon |
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Term
|
Definition
| open and release chemical neurotransmitters; neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind with the receiving dendrites |
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Term
|
Definition
| chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the receiving neuron |
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Term
|
Definition
| increases chance neuron with fire |
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Term
|
Definition
| decreases chance neuron with fire |
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Term
| How neurons process information |
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Definition
| Cell membrane processes the number of impulses received, c. An action potential results only if the threshold level is reached |
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Term
|
Definition
| specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain; Cognitive functioning breaks down in specific ways when areas of the brain are damaged |
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Term
|
Definition
| A lack of oxygen to the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| disturbance of blood supply to brain- affected area unable to function |
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|
Term
| Lack of blood flow can be caused by |
|
Definition
| Blockage or Leakage of blood |
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Term
|
Definition
| Broca's and Wernicke's area |
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Term
|
Definition
| observed that individuals who experience stroke in a specific frontal lobe have characteristic language problems |
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Term
|
Definition
| Speech was slow/labored; jumbled sentence structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| Common finding across patients: damage to a region of the temporal lobe |
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Term
|
Definition
| Fluent and grammatically correct speech, but tended to be incoherent |
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Term
|
Definition
| contains mechanisms responsible for most of our cognitive functions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| posterior part of the brain; vision |
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Term
|
Definition
| directly under temples; a. Auditory and perceptual processing: language, hearing, memory, perceiving form |
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Term
|
Definition
| superior, posterior part; a. Touch, temperature, pain, and pressure: representing space and your relation to it |
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Term
|
Definition
| anterior part of brain; a. Reasoning and planning: language, thought, memory, motor functioning |
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Term
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Definition
| produces representation of spatial relationships (e.g., “one object is above another”) |
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Term
|
Definition
| produces representation of continuous distances |
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Term
| Primary receiving areas for the senses |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Skin (touch, temp, pain) senses |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| An area of specialized cortex for a specific function |
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Term
|
Definition
| responds specifically to faces, i. Located on underside of temporal lobe, ii. Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia |
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Term
| Parahippocampal place area (PPA): |
|
Definition
| parahippocampal places area is activated by places |
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Term
| Extrastriate body area (EBA) |
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Definition
| Extrastriate body area is activated by bodies |
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Term
| How does this all work? Action potential to experience? |
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Definition
| Multiple steps for representation in the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| Perceive object because of reflected light, ii. This is focused onto layer of neurons located on the back of eye (retina) |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Sensory receptors in retina |
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Definition
| transform image into electrical signals (action potential) |
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Term
| Action potentials leave the eye |
|
Definition
| via the optic nerve and eventually reach the primary visual cortex |
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Term
| Representation in the Brain |
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Definition
| How do firing neurons convey an experience |
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Term
|
Definition
| representation of a specific stimulus by firing of specifically tuned neurons that just respond to a single stimulus |
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Term
|
Definition
| representation by a pattern of firing across a number of neurons (more efficient) |
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Term
| Limitations of specificity coding |
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Definition
| Too many objects in the environment to assign a specific neuron to each (i.e. just a grandma cell), b. Finding that groups of neurons respond to specific types of stimuli is inconsistent with the theory |
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Term
| Advantages of distributed coding |
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Definition
| A few neurons can signal a large number of stimuli |
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Term
| Limbic System/Subcortical areas |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| regulates flow of information; processes information from vision, hearing, and touch senses; regulates sleep |
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Term
|
Definition
| controls many bodily functions, including maintaining a constant body temperature and blood pressure, eating and drinking, and regulating sexual behavior |
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Term
|
Definition
| governs the process of forming memories |
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Term
|
Definition
| appreciation/production of emotions and emotional memories (nestles next to hippocampus) |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a process of recognizing, organizing, and interpreting information from senses (not an exact copy of the world) |
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Term
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Definition
| Past experiences and expectations |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| energy into a neural response |
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Term
|
Definition
| transmits the coded activity to the central nervous system |
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Term
|
Definition
| processes and relays the neural response |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| absorbing raw energy (e.g., light waves, sound waves) through our sensory organs |
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Term
|
Definition
| conversion of this energy to neural signals |
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Term
|
Definition
| concentration of mental energy to process incoming information |
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Term
|
Definition
| selecting, organizing, and interpreting these signals |
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Term
|
Definition
| process of matching representation of organized sensory input to stored representations in memory |
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Term
| Neurons and the environment |
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Definition
| Some neurons optimally respond to stimuli that regularly occurs in the environment |
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Term
| Experience-dependent plasticity |
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Definition
| Structure of brain changed by experience |
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Term
|
Definition
| tendency to perceive horizontals and verticals more easily than other orientations |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons that respond to these specific types of stimuli |
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Term
| Interpretation of the world around is determined by interaction of |
|
Definition
| Biological structure of our brain & ii. Experience, which modifies structure |
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Term
| Characteristics of infant’s environment at particular times strongly influences some capabilities of an adult |
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Definition
| Critical period: biologically determined period in which it is essential to develop particular responses (learning sounds and language) |
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Term
| Visual development: What we’ve learned from kittens |
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Definition
| Kitten reared with a patch for 6 mos may grow into a cat with two normal eyes, but with impairments in the perception of depth that depends on integrating information from both eyes |
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Term
| Approaches to understand perception |
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Definition
| Direct perception theories & b. Constructive perception theories |
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Term
| Direct perception theories |
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Definition
| Perception comes from stimuli in the environment, ii. Parts are identified and put together, and then recognition occurs, bottom-up |
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Term
| Constructive perception theories |
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Definition
| People actively construct perceptions using information based on expectations & ii. Top-down processing (we have some sort of idea that is coming down from higher cortical areas) |
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Term
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Definition
| : incoming raw data, energy registering on receptors, perception may start with the senses (parts à whole) |
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Term
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Definition
| perception may start with the brain, person’s knowledge, experience, expectations |
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Term
|
Definition
| actively seeking and extracting information from sensory information and knowledge, beliefs, expectations and goals |
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Term
|
Definition
| quickly and automatically |
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Term
|
Definition
| Signals travel to the brain providing information about the basic features of an object (bottom-up), 2. Signals also sent to provide details about surroundings (bottom-up), 3. Signals associated with a person’s knowledge are sent from higher levels of the brain to influence incoming signals (Feedback Signals) |
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Term
| Object + surroundings + feedback signals |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Helmholtz’s Theory Of Unconscious Inference (~1860) |
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Definition
| Theory of top-down processing suggests that we use our knowledge to guide perceptions |
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Term
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Definition
| we perceive the world in the way that is “most likely” based on our past experiences |
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Term
|
Definition
| the mind groups patterns according to laws of perceptual organization |
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Term
| Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization |
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Definition
| law of good continuation, good figure, common fate, familiarity |
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Term
|
Definition
| Lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path (i.e snake) |
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Term
| Law of good figure (simplicity or prägnanz) |
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Definition
| Every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible (i.e. circles) |
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Term
|
Definition
| closer together, more likely to be grouped together (Law of proximity) |
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Term
|
Definition
| vertical organization overrules proximity |
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Term
|
Definition
| Things moving in the same direction appear to be grouped together |
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Term
|
Definition
| Things are more likely to form groups if the groups appear familiar or meaningful (stones arranged to form meaningful groups) |
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Term
| Gestalt laws often provide accurate information about properties of the environment |
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Definition
| Gestalt laws are heuristics (rule of thumb) |
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Term
|
Definition
| “rule of thumb, best-guess, fast, often correct |
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Term
|
Definition
| procedure guaranteed to solve a problem, slow, definite result |
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Term
|
Definition
| Light-from-above heuristic, ii. Occlusion heuristic |
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Term
| Light-from-above heuristic |
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Definition
| Light comes from above, perceive shadows as specific information about depth and distance |
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Term
|
Definition
| When object is partially covered by a smaller occluding object, the larger one is seen as continuing behind the smaller occluded |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| identifying the location of an object |
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Term
|
Definition
| To understand a complex system, you can logically deduce conclusions from “malfunctions” |
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Term
|
Definition
| damage specific areas of otherwise normal brains |
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Term
|
Definition
| One function is lost, another remains; 2. What and where rely on different mechanisms, although they may not operate totally independent of one another |
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Term
|
Definition
| Requires two individuals with different damage and opposite deficits; 2. What and where must have different mechanisms AND operate independently of one another |
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Term
|
Definition
| Neurons that respond similarly when actually performing an act and when observing someone else perform the act |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Process of concentrating on specific features of the environment, or certain thoughts/activities |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| concentration on one source of input to the exclusion of any other |
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Term
| Enhance some information; inhibit other information |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| more than one source is attended to |
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Term
| When attention is divided, loss of information occurs because of limited attention resources |
|
Definition
| driving and talking on the phone |
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Term
|
Definition
| Consciously attend to information; ii. “Out of the corner of the eye” phenomenon |
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Term
| Research Method: Dichotic Listening |
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Definition
| Participant “shadows” one message to ensure he is attending to that message |
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Term
| Models of Selective Attention |
|
Definition
| Where does the attention filter occur? |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Filters message before incoming information is analyzed for meaning |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| holds all incoming information for a fraction of a second and transfers all information to the next stage |
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Term
|
Definition
| identifies attend message based on physical characteristics; only attended message is passed on to the next stage |
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Term
|
Definition
| processes all information to determine higher-level characteristics of the message |
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Term
|
Definition
| participant's name gets through, participant can shadow meaningful messages that switch from one ear to another |
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Term
| Intermediate selection model |
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Definition
| Tresiman’s attenuation theory |
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Term
| Attended message can be separated from unattended message early in the information-processing system (Selection can also occur later) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| analyzes incoming message in terms of physical characteristics, language, and meaning (bother are let through, attended at full strength and unattended at weaker level) |
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Term
|
Definition
| contains words, each of which have thresholds for being activated |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after information has been analyzed for meaning (everything gets in) |
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Definition
| Key point: late selection models propose that most of incoming information is processed before the message |
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Term
|
Definition
| how much of a person’s cognitive resources are used to accomplish a task |
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Term
|
Definition
| uses almost all; no resources for other tasks (i.e. taking a test, brain surgery) |
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Term
|
Definition
| uses few resources for other tasks (i.e. driving, reading US weekly) |
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Term
| Flanker compatibility task |
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Definition
| Laboratory technique to test effect of task load on the processing of stimul |
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Term
|
Definition
| flankers associated with the same response as the target (A and B) à fastest response |
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Term
|
Definition
| flankers associated with a different response than the target (A and C) à slowest response |
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Term
|
Definition
| flankers are not associated with any response |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type of distractor does not affect reaction time |
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Term
|
Definition
| ability to divided attention depends on a number of factors, including proactive and task difficulty |
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Term
|
Definition
| Ability to divide attention depends on a number of factors, including practice and task difficulty |
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Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus tat is not attended is not perceived, even thought a person might be looking directly at it |
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Term
|
Definition
| attention is so important that, without it, we may fail to perceive visible stimuli |
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Term
|
Definition
| if shown two various a picture, differences between them are not immediately apparent; i. Requires concentrated attention and search strategies |
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Term
| What determines where we fixate |
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Definition
| Bottom-up and top down determinants of eye movement |
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Term
| Bottom-up determinants of eye movement |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| areas that stand out and capture attention; 3. Color and motion are highly salient |
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Term
|
Definition
| depends solely on the pattern of stimulation falling on receptors |
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Term
| Top-down determinants of eye movements |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes |
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|
Term
| Eye movements are determined by task |
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Definition
| Eye movements preceded motor actions by a fraction of a second |
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Term
|
Definition
| Attention without Eye Movements |
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|
Term
| Does attention to a specific location improve ability to quickly respond to something at that location? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cue indicates where a stimulus is most likely to appear |
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|
Term
| Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory |
|
Definition
| How we perceive initially separate features/items as part of the same object |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Attention enhances neural responding |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| : neurons can be stimulated based upon whether the observer is interested or not |
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|
