Term
| why are ions less likely to be found within the cell membrane? |
|
Definition
| membrane inside is uncharged |
|
|
Term
| unsaturated fats & proteins = permeable or nonpermeable? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| saturate fats & cholesterol = permeable or nonpermeable? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are sister chromatids identical? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does the digestive system have trouble digesting cellulose? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| functional group associated with alcohol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which has more energy?
~carbohydrate
~long carbon chain with carboxylic acid at the end |
|
Definition
| long carbon chain with carboxylic acid at the end |
|
|
Term
| the mass of DNA per cell after completion of meiosis II is _____ the mass of DNA per normal somatic cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the mass of DNA per cell after completion of meiosis II is _____ the mass present per cell after Interphase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Interphase has _____ the mass of DNA per cell after Meiosis I |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many hydroxyl groups does every monosaccharide contain? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what varies among polysaccharides? |
|
Definition
| location/geometry of glycosidic linkages |
|
|
Term
| if two organisms show a developmental homology, you would also definitely expect them to share _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| carbohydrates share the same _____ in some types of animals & in all plants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| argued that variation among individuals allows evolution to occur |
|
|
Term
| which carbohydrate contains a peptide bond? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| AaBbCc x AABbCc = probability of AABBCC |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| AaBbCc x AABbCc = probability of AaBbcc |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| AaBbCcddEe x AABBccDDEe = probability of AaBBCcDdEE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| AaBbCcddEe x AABBccDDEe = probability of AABBCCDDee |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| X'X x X'Y = probability of affected offspring |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| X'X x X'Y = probability of unaffected female |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| X'X x X'Y = probability of diseased male |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of brown eyes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of blue eyes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of color blindness |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of color-blind male |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of brown eyed, color blind male |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of blue eyed, color blind females |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BbX'X x bbXY = probability of any male being color blind |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do males show sex-linked traits more often than females? |
|
Definition
| only have 1 X (doesn't matter that traits are recessive) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mass of DNA in meiosis II |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do cyclins & cdks help regulate the cell cycle? |
|
Definition
| begin cell cycle by phosphorylating Rb |
|
|
Term
| what happens if Cdks fail to phosphorylate Rb? |
|
Definition
| no cell cycle replication will occur |
|
|
Term
| how many diploid cells are produced in meiosis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many different genotypes are possible in the cross of Aabb X AaBb |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aabb X AaBb = probability of aaBb |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aabb X AaBb = probability of dominant phenotype of A & recessive phenotype for B |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when one gene alters many phenotypic traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when one trait is determined by multiple genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cytokinesis in plants VS in animals |
|
Definition
plants: microtubules direct vesicles to center of spindle where they fuse a new cell wall
animals: cells are pulled apart by actin & myosin proteins until they pinch off |
|
|
Term
| what phase comes after anaphase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 phases of the cell cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| smallest phase in the cell cycle |
|
Definition
| M phase (others involve checkpoints & replication) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dimer consisting of cyclin & Cdk |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes phosphorylation of other proteins to starts M phase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein with 2 polypeptide subunites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inactivates E2F by binding to it (tumor suppressor) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extracellular signals tell cell to get ready to promote replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transcription factor (promotes gene transcription) only when activated (phosphorylated or released) |
|
|
Term
| what increases to drive the process of cell replication? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. growth factors arrive from other cells
2. growth factors cause increase in cyclin & E2F concentrations
3. cyclin binds to Cdk; Cdk is phosphorylated. Rb inactivates E2F by binding to it
4. inactivating phosphate is removed, & active Cdk phosphorylates Rb
5. phosphorylated Rb releases E2F
6. E2F triggers production of S-phase proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prevents further activity when DNA is damaged |
|
|
Term
| difference between a chromosome and a gene |
|
Definition
| chromosome = larger structure that is made up of genes |
|
|
Term
| different stages of the cell cycle (and what they are) |
|
Definition
G1/G0: normal function
S: DNA replication
G2: prep for division
M: cell division/reproduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
interphase
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
interphase
early prophase 1
late prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1 & cytokinesis
prophase II
metaphase II
anaphase II
telophase II & cytokinesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| m phase-promoting factor made up of cyclin & cdk |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA copied/complete & MPF |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spindle attachment, chrom attachment, no MPF |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolutionary advantage, mixing & matching gene sequences for an uncertain future |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomes condense, spindle apparatus forms, nuclear envelope broken down, synapsis of homologous chromosomes, chiasmata visible |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| migration of bivalents to metaphase plate is complete |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| homologs separate & begin moving to opposite poles of spindle apparatus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nondisjunction occurs (trisomy VS monosomy) |
|
|
Term
| how did Mendel refute the theory of blending inheritance |
|
Definition
| pure parents --> dominant phenotype F1 --> both types of F2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 100% homozygous recessive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
50% heterozygous dominant
50% homozygous recessive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
25% homozygous dominant
50% heterozygous dominant
25% homozygous recessive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 100% heterozygous dominant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
50% heterozygous dominant
50% homozygous dominant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| "and" VS "or" genetics problems |
|
Definition
| events that could occur in more than one way (or order) = "OR" & their probabilities should be added (summed); sequential events should have their probabilities multiplied |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| additive; number of dominant alleles matters (ex. how red a kernel is) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genes located on sex chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two genes found on same chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heterozygotes have intermediate phenotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heterozygotes have phenotype of both alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in a population, more than two alleles present at a locus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in a population, more than two phenotypes associated with a single gene are present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a single gene affects many traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in discrete traits, the phenotype associated with an allele depends on which alleles are present at another gene |
|
|
Term
| gene-by-environment interaction |
|
Definition
| phenotype influenced by environment experienced by individual |
|
|
Term
| polygenic inheritance of quantitative traits |
|
Definition
| many genes are involved in specifying traits that exhibit continuous variation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| have shaded in shape on a pedigree |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shaded in shape on a pedigree |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
depends on position of -OH on 4' C
glucose: pointing up
galactose: pointing down |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
depends on C=O position (middle or not)
aldose: not middle
ketose: middle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
alpha: H above OH on 1' C (V bond)
beta: OH above H on 1' C (A bond) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for energy storage in plant cells (such as in potatoes); unbranched helix (amylose) or branched helices (amylopectin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for energy storage in animal cells (such as in liver & muscles); highly branched helices |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for structural support in cells walls or plants & many algae; parallel strands joined by hydrogen bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for structural support in the cell walls of fungi & the external skeletons of insects & crustaceans; parallel strands joined by hydrogen bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for structural support in bacterial cell walls; parallel strands joined by peptide bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inside of the cell; attached to transmembrane protein |
|
|
Term
| energy in C-C and C-H bonds VS energy in C-O bonds |
|
Definition
| free energy in C-C and C-H is much higher than in C-O so energy from sunlight is stored in C-H and C-C bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glycerol linked by ester linkages to three fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail |
|
|
Term
| permeability: saturated VS unsaturated |
|
Definition
| unsaturated = more permeable |
|
|
Term
| saturated VS unsaturated tails |
|
Definition
saturated = straight
unsaturated = there is a C=C bond in the middle --> kinks |
|
|
Term
| effect of length of hydrocarbon tails on fluidity |
|
Definition
| short tails = higher fluidity |
|
|
Term
| cold weather = unsaturated or saturated tails? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| trans configuration in fats |
|
Definition
| alternating C-H bonds on either side of the C=C bond |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transports cholesterol to tissues; oxidized --> set off an immune response that creates plaque in vessel walls = atherosclerosis --> ischemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transports cholesterol to liver --> bile formation, decreasing cholesterol concentration in the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| separation of solutes by lipid bilayer --> diffusion (with concentration gradient) --> equilibrium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new cells arise by splitting preexisting cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leads to the production of sperm & eggs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leads to the production of all other cell types besides gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the division of the cytoplasm into two distinct cells |
|
|
Term
| 3 requirements for cellular replication |
|
Definition
1. copy the DNA
2. separate the copies
3. divide the cytoplasm to create two complete cells |
|
|
Term
| 3 events that eukaryotic cell replication is responsible for |
|
Definition
1. growth
2. wound repair
3. reproduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produces offspring that are genetically identical with the parent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| threadlike structures; consists of a single, long DNA double helix that is wrapped around proteins in a highly organized manner |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the proteins around which the DNA double helix is wrapped in a chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each of the DNA copies in a replicated chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized region of the chromosome that joins sister chromatids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromatid copies that remain attached at their centromere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mitotic/meiotic phase; cell dividing phase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the orderly sequence of events that leads a eukaryotic cell through the duplication of its chromosomes to the time it divides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the gap between the end of M and start of S phase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the second gap, between the end of S and start of M phase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. interphase: after chromosome replication, each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids; centrosomes have replicated
2. prophase: chromosomes condense & spindle apparatus begins to form
3. prometaphase: nuclear envelope breaks down; microtubules contact chromosomes at kinetochores
4. metaphase: chromosomes complete migration to middle of cell
5. anaphase: sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes & are pulled to opposite poles of the spindle apparatus
6. telophase: the nuclear envelope re-forms & chromosomes de-condense
7. cell division begins: actin-myosin ring causes the plasma membrane to being pinching in
8. cell division is complete: two daughter cells form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the material that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes; consists of DNA molecule complexed with histone proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the structures on sister chromatids where microtubules attach |
|
|
Term
| microtubule-organizing center |
|
Definition
| any structure that organizes microtubules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the microtubule-organizing center in animals & some plants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cylindrical structures that comprise microtubules, located inside animal centrosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a flattened sac-like structure formed by the vesicles in the middle of what was the spindle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what cytokinesis begins with in animals & many other eukaryotes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| M phase-promoting factor (MPF) |
|
Definition
| the factor that initiates m-phase in oocytes |
|
|
Term
| cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) |
|
Definition
| the protein kinase subunit of MPF |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a process is slowed or shut down by one of its products |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activates genes that either stop the cell cycle until DNA damage can be repaired or cause the cell's programmed controlled destruction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cell's programmed controlled destruction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regulatory proteins like p53 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| disease caused by cells that divide in an uncontrolled fashion, invade nearby tissues, & spread to other sites in the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| masses of noninvasive cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polypeptides or small proteins that stimulate cell division |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the liquid portion of blood that remains after blood cells & cell fragments have been removed |
|
|
Term
| 6 steps in the G1 checkpoint |
|
Definition
1. growth factors arrive from other cells
2. growth factors cause increase in cyclin & E2F concentrations
3. cyclin binds to Cdk; Cdk is phosphorylated; Rb inactivates E2F by binding to it
4. inactivating phosphate is removed & active Cdk phosphorylates Rb
5. phosphorylated Rb releases E2F
6. E2F triggers production of S-phase proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of uniting sperm & egg |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reproductive cells such as sperm & eggs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nuclear division that leads to a halving of chromosome number & ultimately to the production of sperm & egg |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomes that are the same size & shape |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| section of DNA that influences some hereditary trait in an individual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| different versions of the same gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number & types of chromosomes present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that have two versions of each type of chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms whose cells contain just one of each type of chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of distinct types of chromosomes in a given cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the combination of the number of sets & n |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| species that have three or more of each type of chromosome in each cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chromosome that consists of one double-helical molecule of DNA packaged with proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chromosome that has been copied; consists of two identical chromatids, each containing one double-helical DNA molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the two identical chromatid copies in a replicated chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromatids belonging to homologous chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| homologous replicated chromosomes that are joined together during prophase I & metaphase I of meiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of chromosomes present in a diploid cell; symbolized 2n |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formation of egg cells or sperm cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cell that results from fertilization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sequence of events that occurs over the life span of an individual, from fertilization to the production of offspring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. interphase: uncondensed chromosomes replicate in parent cell
2. early prophase I: chromosomes condense, spindle apparatus forms, nuclear envelope begins to break down; synapsis (pairing) of homologous chromosomes
3. late prophase I: chiasmata (crossover points) visible, nuclear envelope broken down, often multiple chiasmata between non-sister chromatids
4. metaphase I: migration of bivalents to metaphase plate is complete
5. anaphase I: homologs separate & begin moving to opposite poles of the spindle apparatus
6. telophase I & cytokinesis: homologs separate & begin moving to opposite poles of the spindle apparatus
7. prophase II: spindle apparatus forms
8. metaphase II: chromosomes line up at the middle of the spindle apparatus (metaphase plate)
9. anaphase II: sister chromatids separate, begin moving to opposite poles of the spindle apparatus
10. telophase II & cytokinesis: chromosomes move to opposite poles of the spindle apparatus; spindle apparatus disassembles |
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: number of cell divisions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: number of chromosomes in daughter cells compared with parent cell |
|
Definition
mitosis: same
meiosis: half |
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: synapsis of homologs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: number of crossing-over events |
|
Definition
mitosis: non
meiosis: one or more per pair of homologous chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: makeup of chromosomes in daughter cells |
|
Definition
mitosis: identical
meiosis: different - various combinations of maternal & paternal chromosomes, paternal & maternal segments mixed within chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| mitosis VS meiosis: role in organism life cycle |
|
Definition
mitosis: asexual reproduction in some eukaryotes; cell division for growth
meisos: halving of chromosome number in cells that will produce gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. condensation
2. pairing
3. synapsis (bivalent formation)
4. partial separation of homologs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inheritance, the transmission of traits from parents to offspring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any characteristic of an individual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the traits observed in a mother & father blend together to form the traits observed in their offspring |
|
|
Term
| inheritance of acquired characters |
|
Definition
| traits present in parents are modified through use & passed on to their offspring in the modified form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a species that is used for research because it is practical & because conclusions drawn from studying it turn out to apply to many other species as well |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a hereditary factor that influences a particular trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a particular form of a gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a listing of the alleles in an individual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual's observable traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| having two of the same allele |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| having two different alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an allele that produces its phenotype in heterozygous & homozygous form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an allele that produces its phenotype only in homozygous form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individuals of the same phenotype that, when crossed, always produce offspring with the same phenotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| offspring from crosses between homozygous parents with different genotypes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cross in which the phenotypes of the male & female are reversed compared with a prior cross |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cross between a homozygous recessive individual & an individual with the dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| referring to a gene located on the X-chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| referring to a gene located on the Y-chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| referring to a gene located on any non-sex chromosome (an autosome) or a trait determined by an autosomal gene |
|
|
Term
| principle of independent assortment |
|
Definition
| alleles of different genes are transmitted independently of one another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most common phenotype for each trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when only two sugars are linked together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| covalent interaction between two monosaccharides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| entirely alpha-glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a protective sheet that occurs outside the membrane |
|
|
Term
| cellulose consists of _____ |
|
Definition
| beta-glucose monomers joined by beta 1,4 glycosidic linkages |
|
|
Term
| glycoprotein has one or more _____ |
|
Definition
| carbohydrates covalently bonded to it |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which plants harvest the kinetic energy in sunlight & store it in the bonds of carbohydates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme involved in catalyzing the hydrolysis of alpha-glycosidic linkages in glycogen molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the enzymes involved in breaking the alpha-glycosidic linkages in starch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules that contain only carbon & hydrogen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a simple lipid consisting of a hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hydrocarbon chains that consist of only single bonds between the carbons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if one or more double bonds exist in the hydrocarbon chains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| saturated lipids that have extremely long hydrocarbon tails |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nonpolar molecules composed of three fatty acids that are linked to a three-carbon molecule (glycerol) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| liquid triacylglycerols formed when fatty acids are polyunsaturated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bond between glycerols & fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| family of lipids distinguished by the bulky, four-ring structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a glycerol that is linked to a phosphate group & two hydrocarbon chains of either isoprenoids or fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| compounds that contain both hydrophilic & hydrophobic elements |
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Term
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Definition
| when two sheets of lipid molecules align |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to allow a given substance to pass through it |
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Term
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Definition
| some substances can cross a membrane more easily than others |
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Term
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Definition
| all dissolved molecules & ions |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of molecules & ions that results from their kinetic energy |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| water leaves (less solutes) |
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Term
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Definition
| water enters (more solutes) |
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Term
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Definition
| water doesn't move (equilibrium) |
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Term
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Definition
| simple vesicle-like structures that harbor nuclei acids |
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Term
| peripheral membrane proteins |
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Definition
| proteins that bind to the membrane without passing through it |
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Term
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Definition
| a small amphipathic molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| channels that allow water to cross the plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| powered by diffusion along an electrochemical gradient |
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Term
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Definition
| the passive transport of substances that otherwise would not cross a membrane readily |
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