Term
| Instrumental Conditioning |
|
Definition
| humans and nonhuman animals alike tend to behave in ways that bring them desirable consequences or enable them to avoid unpleasant ones. |
|
|
Term
| Edward Thorndike's connectionism |
|
Definition
| a theory of learning that emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus-response connections. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened vs. responses followed by discomfort are weakened. This implies that reward and punishment have opposite but equal effects on behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thorndike deemphasized the role of punishment, instead, he proposed that punishment has an indirect effect on learning: a learner may engage in certain other behaviors that interfere with performance of the punished response. |
|
|
Term
| B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning |
|
Definition
| a response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and therefore is more likely to occur again. |
|
|
Term
| Why is the term reinforcer used instead of reward? |
|
Definition
| The word reward implies that the stimulus following a behavior is both pleasant and desirable, but some individuals will work for what others to be unpleasant consequences and Skinner preferred to restrict to observable events. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the act of following a response with a reinforcer |
|
|
Term
| Transituational generality of a reinforcer |
|
Definition
| any single reinforcer, whether it be food or money, is likely to increase many different behaviors in many different situations. |
|
|
Term
| What are the conditions that influence the likelihood that operant conditioning is successful? |
|
Definition
| The reinforcer must follow the response, ideally immediately after the response, and the reinforcer should be presented only when the desired response has occurred. |
|
|
Term
| Operant vs. Classical Conditioning: Occurs when... |
|
Definition
1. Classical Conditioning: two stimuli (UCS and CS) are paired.
2. Operant Conditioning: a response (R) is followed by a reinforcer stimulus (Srf). |
|
|
Term
| Operant vs. Classical Conditioning: Association required... |
|
Definition
1. Classical Conditioning: CS → CR.
2. Operant Conditioning: R → Srf |
|
|
Term
| Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: Nature of response... |
|
Definition
1. Classical Conditioning: Involuntary, elicited by a stimulus.
2. Operant Conditioning: Voluntary, emitted by the organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
satisfies a built-in, perhaps biology-based, need or desired.
1. Essential for physiological well-being → i.e. food, water, oxygen.
2. Enhances social cohesiveness and chances for survival → i.e. physical affection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(AKA conditioned reinforcer) is a previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to a learner through repeated association with another reinforcer → does not need to satisfy any biological or social needs.
i.e. praise, good grades, money. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| involves the the presentation of a stimulus after the response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they're provided by the outside environment, whereas others come from within the learner. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(AKA tangible reinforcer) is an actual object, which have a tendency to a distract students from the things they should be doing in class and are counterproductive.
i.e. food and toys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is a gesture or sign that one person gives another, usually to communicate positive regard.
i.e. a smile, attention, or praise. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is an opportunity to engage in a favorite activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a normally high-frequency response follows a normally low-frequency response, the high frequency response will increase the frequency response of the low-frequency response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| material and social reinforcers improve classroom behavior and lead to better learning of academic skills because they communicate a message that learners are performing well or making significant progress. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases a response through the removal of a stimulus, usually an aversive or unpleasant one. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decreases the frequency of the response it follows. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
involves the presentation of a stimulus, typically an aversive one.
i.e. scolding or a failing grade. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| involves the removal of a stimulus, usually a pleasant one. |
|
|
Term
| How do negative reinforcement and punishment differ? |
|
Definition
1. They have opposite effects: negative → increases frequency vs. punishment → decreases frequency.
2. The order of events: negative → aversive stimulus stops vs. punishment → aversive stimulus begins. |
|
|
Term
| Verbal reprimand (Punishment I) |
|
Definition
| a scolding or admonishment. |
|
|
Term
| Restitution (Punishment I) |
|
Definition
| a misbehaving individual must return the environment to the same state of affairs that it was in before the misbehavior. |
|
|
Term
| Logical consequence (Punishment I) |
|
Definition
| whereby the punishment fits the crime. |
|
|
Term
| Positive-practice overcorrection (Punishment I) |
|
Definition
| involves having an individual repeat an action, but this time doing it correctly, perhaps in an exaggerated fashion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| involves placing a misbehaving individual in a dull, boring situation with no opportunity for social interaction. |
|
|
Term
| In-house suspension (Punishment II) |
|
Definition
| is similar to a time-out that punished students are placed in a quiet, boring room within the school building. |
|
|
Term
| Response cost (Punishment II) |
|
Definition
| involves the withdrawal of a previously earned reinforcer. |
|
|
Term
| Why is physical punishment an ineffective form of punishment? |
|
Definition
| It can lead to resentment, inattention/avoidance to school task, and provides a model of aggression, thus communicating the message that aggression is acceptable. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any consequence that seriously threatens a student's self-esteem or emotional well-being. |
|
|
Term
| Why is extra classwork an ineffective form of punishment? |
|
Definition
| communicates the message that schoolwork is unpleasant. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has occurred immediately beforehand, and a learner will increase that response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (AKA successive approximations) is a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until that behavior is exhibited. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this process of first reinforcing just one response, then reinforcing tow responses in a row, then three, and so on. |
|
|
Term
| Extinction (instrumental conditioning) |
|
Definition
| occurs when a response decreases in frequency because it no longer leads to reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| every response is reinforced. |
|
|
Term
| Intermittent reinforcement |
|
Definition
| some instances of the desired response are reinforced and some are not → intermittently reinforced responses are extinguished more slowly than continuously reinforced responses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a response continuously until it occurs in the desired form and at the desired frequency. After that, it should be maintained through intermittent reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is one in which reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is one in which reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain time interval has elapsed. |
|
|
Term
| Variable-interval schedule |
|
Definition
reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain time interval has elapsed, but the length of the interval changes from one occasion to the next → the longer the average time interval until reinforcement, the slower the response rate will be.
- Greater resistance to extinction than fixed, because of the unpredictability of reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
| Differential schedule of reinforcement |
|
Definition
| is a specific number of responses occurring within a specific length of time leads to reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
| Differential rate of high responding (DRH) |
|
Definition
| provides reinforcement only when a specific, large number of responses have occurred within a particular time period → time is critical, because it requires many responses in a short amount of time, a high response rate is typical. |
|
|
Term
| Differential rate of low responding (DRL) |
|
Definition
| reinforces the first response after a certain length of time in which the learner has not made the response at all. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is the process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus → one that causes pain, anxiety, or frustration. |
|
|
Term
| Active avoidance learning |
|
Definition
| the learner must actively make a particular response to avoid an aversive event. |
|
|
Term
| Passive avoidance learning |
|
Definition
| learners learn that NOT making a particular response allow them not to avoid an aversive event. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cue signaling the advent of the aversive stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| Avoidance learning may sometimes be a two-step process |
|
Definition
1. The pre-aversive stimulus and the aversive are presented close together in time, the learner learns to fear the pre-aversive stimulus through a process of a classical conditioning.
2. An avoidance response leads to negative reinforcement and possibly also intrinsic positive reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
| Antecedent stimuli and antecedent responses |
|
Definition
| some stimuli and responses, which set the stage for certain behaviors to follow and for other behaviors NOT to. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this antecedent stimulus doesn't directly elicit the response as it does in classical conditioning, rather, it increases the probability that the response will be followed by reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when an organism is more likely to make certain responses in the presence of certain stimuli. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (AKA prompting) provides an additional discriminative stimuli that lets students know how to behave. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complex environmental conditions under which certain behaviors are most likely to occur. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a learner has learned to respond in a certain way in the presence of one stimulus (S+) it may respond in the same way in the presence of other stimuli → most likely to occur when a new stimulus is similar to a previously learned antecedent stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this tendency to generalize more readily as stimuli become more similar to the original discriminative stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a response may be reinforced in the presence of one stimulus (S+) but not in the presence of another stimulus (S-). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learners are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making similar response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Elation effect: occurs when the amount of reinforcement is increased → an organism's response rate becomes FASTER than it would be if the reinforcement had always been at that higher level.
2. Depression effect: occurs when the amount of reinforcement is decreased → an organism's response rate becomes slower than it would be if reinforcement had always been that low. |
|
|
