the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would  have forseen it. "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon"

Example: Like your friend was dating this guy and he cheats on her. You say," I knew all along that would happen."

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observation.

Example: Scientist ponder on whether the earth was created from the big bang theory or that humans really came from apes or not.

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Example: People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

a statement of the procedures(operations) used to define research variables.

Example: human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

repeating the essence of a research study, usually w/ different participants in different situations, to see whther the basic finding extends to other perticipants and circumstances.

Example: For example, the development of measures and evidence-based assessments is an important priority for the field of pediatric psychology

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Example: doing some research on a woman that just got into a car accident and the scientist is observing her brain levels after the accident.

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

Example: randomly asking people if they like homosexual marriages.

 the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Example:        

Romantic relationships between people often start off with a glow as hormones and False Consensus overshadow real differences. However, the cloud-9 effect eventually wears off as the loving couple eventually discover that they are not, after all, that similar (and in fact often are amazingly incompatible!).

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.

Example: like if there was a study and they wanted to ask how people from New York City like living there. To get a population, they'd have to ask each and every person living in New York City.                                                                                                  

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Example:  numbers drawn from a hat.                                                                                           

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations w/out trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Example:    observing the behavior of children fighting outside in the playground.                                                                       

a measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Example: -.3  -.8   .4    .7In this example, -.8 is the strongest correlation.                                                 

correlation coefficents: is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging cal from -1 to +1.

Example:     2,-3,4-6. 2 will be the stronger coefficent.                                                

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables. The slope points suggests the direction of the relationship b/w the 2 variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correaltion). (Also called a scattergram or scatter diagram.)

Example:         [image]                                                                                           

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

Example:    stereotypes                                                                

Experiment

(be able to  design one)

a research method in which an investigator manipulates 1 or more factors( independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process( the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Example: Redi's experiemnt on rekecting spontaneous generation.                   

an experimental procedure in which both the research participant & the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants ve received the treatment or placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Example:         An example of double-blind research is a study of subliminal learning tapes                                                                                                                                  

:[latin for “I shall please”] effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

Example:      a normal drug vs. a sugar drug used as a placebo.                                                                                                 

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to 1 version of the independent variable.

Example:   For example, if I am studying the effects of 2 different pain medications of headaches, I may give people who have headaches either Tylenol or Bayer (the treatment groups; thus in this example there are two levels of the IV; one level is Tylenol, the other is Bayer, but both are part of the experimental condition)                                             

the condition of an experiment that contrats w/ the experimental conditon and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Example:     when two groups in an experiment are kept identical                                                                 

assigning participants to experimental and control conditons by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences b/w those assigned to the different groups.

Example:  Just randomly putting people into groups.                                                                    

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Example: The temperature would be the independent variable, if that is what you manipulate in the experiment.

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in repsonse to manipulation of the independent variable.

Experiment: the quick expansion of the yeast is the depnednt variable in which it reacted to the temeprature which is independent variable.

mean: the arithemtic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing the number of scores.

Example:10+2= 12 12/2= 4 which is the average                                                              

median: the middle score in a distibution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Example:  23 34 36 39 40                                                                

mode: the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distibution.

Example:  34 35 37 37 39 42                                                          

range: the difference b/w the highest and lowest scores in a distibution.

Example:  30-10= 20                                                                   

standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

2600.4 
                        =  288.7
        10 - 1                                                           

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Example:    suppose we give 1,000 people an IQ test, and we ask if there is a significant difference between male and female scores. The mean score for males is 98 and the mean score for females is 100. We use an independent groups t-test and find that the difference is significant at the .001 level. The big question is, "So what?". The difference between 98 and 100 on an IQ test is a very small difference...so small, in fact, that its not even important.                                                                   

 is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study.

Example: Panel studies US Panel Study on Income                                                                                          

 is a form of reactivity whereby subjects improve or modify an aspect of their behavior being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they are being studied not in response to any particular experimental manipulation.

Example:  a nurse 

is an extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (positively or negatively) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable. The methodologies of scientific studies therefore need to account for these variables - either through experimental design, in which case, one achieves control, or through statistical means, in which case we are said to account for them - to avoid a false positive (Type I) error; an erroneous conclusion that the dependent variables are in a causal relationship with the independent variable.

Example:  randomizing groups, utilizing strict controls                                                                                                     

Theory

   A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and  organizes and predicts behavior or events.

  For example, low-self-esteem contributes to depressions.

Descriptive: aim to summarize a data set, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the data are thought to represent.

Example:     "80% of these people have the last name Nicolussi."                                                              

Inferential statistics:  used to describe systems of procedures that can be used to draw conclusions from datasets arising from systems affected by random variation.

Example:  "Henry never sells more than 2 cars on a Sunday."                                                                                                     

Experimenter bias: is subjective bias towards a result expected by the human experimenter.

Example:  an experimenter who works for a drug company that is trying to produce a new drug for depression would be wise to have another experimenter randomize the participants into the group getting the new drug and the group getting a placebo.                                                                  

 refers to evidence from anecdotes. Because of the small sample, there is a larger chance that it may be true but unreliable due to cherry-picked or otherwise unrepresentative of typical cases

Example:  a physician will take anecdotal evidence from a patient about a reaction to a new medication and use that information in deciding to adjust the prescribed dosage or to change the medication.                                                                                                             

is a bar graph w/ the scores plotted on horizontal axis and the frequencies on the vertical axis.

Example:    [image]                                                                 

this kine graph has the same vertical and horizontal as the histogram. Each score's frequency of occurance is marked w/ a point on the graph, then all points are connected w/ a line.

Example:                 [image]