• organisms lack plastids
• modified mitochondria called mitosomes
• mitosomes lack functional electron transport chains, therefore they cannot use oxygen to extract energy from carbohydrates
• mitochondria lack DNA, electron transport chains, and enzymes needed for krebs cycle
• have multiple flagella, 2 haploid nuclei, simple cytoskeleton
• Giardia lamblia cause "Beaver fever," acquired through drinking water contaminated by human feces, infects human intestines and causes sever diarrhea and cramps

• lack plastids
• mitochondria are reduced and called hydrogenosomes 
• hydrogenosomes generate some energy anaerobically and release hydrogen as a by product 
• mitochondria lack DNA, electron transport chains, or enzymes for Kreb's cycle
• Trichomonas vaginalis is a usual inhabitant of the vagina, overpopulation causes infection that can be transferred to partner

• Euglena is an autotroph, but others can be heterotrophic or even mixotrophic 
• contain: carotenoids, chlorophylls a and b, and xanthophyll
• no cell wall
• have pellicle to maintain shape
• divides by mitosis, but nucleolus and nuclear membrane do not disappear
• has stigma (light sensitive organ)
• stores carbohydrates in paramylon made in the pyrenoid 

• has single large mitochondrion associated with kinetoplastid 
• kinetoplastid houses extra-nuclear DNA
• movement via whip-like flagella 
• Trypanosoma causes African Sleeping Sickness, this is transmitted by the tsetse fly and is fatal if not treated 
• also causes Chagas' disease which is transmitted by bloodsucking insects and causes congestive heart failure
• found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial as well as species that are parasites of animals, plants, and other protists 

• Phylum kinetoplastida 
• Termite flagellates are in the gut of the termite to digest the cellulose it eats 

Phylum Dinoflagellata

• members have 2 flagella, enabling them to spin through the water 
• reinforced by cellulose plates
• have: carotenoids, xanthophyll, chlorophyll a and c
• store carbs in starch
• have trichocysts (mini harpoons)
• over abundance causes "red tides", toxins produced have caused massive kills of invertebrates and fish
• important components of phytoplankton
• nucleolus and nuclear membrane do not disappear during mitosis
• Pfiesteria piscicida, carnivorous member that feeds on prey's body fluids 
• zooxanthellae live in corals and are important components of reef communities 

Phylum Apicomplexa 

• name from apical complex used to penitrate host's red blood cells
• all members are endoparasitic (within the organism)
• are host specific
• very complex life cycles, often with several hosts, and have both sexual and asexual stages (Campbell 8th ed. pg 583)
• Plasmodiumn causes malaria (transmitted via mosquito)
• no organelle for movement

Phylum Ciliophora 

• largest, most diverse and complex group of protozoans
• members use cilia for locomotion
• cilia can be over entire surface or concentrated in rows or tufts 
• cilia projects out through holes in pellicle 
• This image Paramecium
• have trichocysts used for anchoring, defense, and predation
• Have two types of nuclei: 
• macro- governs activities of cell
• micro-involved with reproduction
• some contain a toxin 
• have oral groove, which leads to place of ingestion
• have food and contractile vacuoles
• have anal pore for waste discharge 
• most free-living and heterotrophic
• have holozoic nutrition (takes in whole prey)
• reproduce by binary fission 
• life cycle Campbell 8th ed. pg 584

Phylum Bacillariophyta

• commonly called diatoms
• unicellular
• color: yellow or brown
• unique glass-like wall made up of hydrated silica 
• wall made of two parts that fit together (like shoe box with lid) 
• found in oceans and lakes
• important component of plankton
• store food as laminarin or oil
• reproduce asexually 
• fossil form diatomaceous earth which is used in toothpaste, water filters, insulating materials
• pigments: carotenoids, xanthophyll, chlorophylls a and c

Phylum Oomycota

• commonly called water molds
• heterotrophic 
• some unicellular others branched with hyphae
• cell wall composed of cellulose
• diploid
• flagellated
• reproduction includes large egg
• important in dcomposing dead stuff in water
• Picture of Saprolegnia
• Ick is a parastitic water mold
• includes other water molds that do not live in the water such as downy mildews and white rusts (plant parasites) 
• Phytophthora infestans caused Irish potato famine

Phylum Foraminifera

• named for porous shells
• marine and fresh water
• most live in sand or can attach themselves to rocks or algea
• some abundant in plankton
• single-celled, but some reach sizes of several cm
• shll contains calcium carbonate
• pseudopodia protrude out of the shell
• some have symbiotic algae
• formed White Cliffs of Dover, limestone, flint
• gelogists use these fossils when searching for oil 

Phylum Actinopoda

• movement via axopodia 
• these structures help them float and feed
• have silica in internal skeleton (gives it a glassy appearance) 
• heliozoans-freshwater
• raiolarians-marine
• image: Radiolaria

Kingdom Chlorophyta 

• This image: Chlamydomonas
• known as green algae
• some put into plant kingdom, but have different ancestors than plants
• beleived to have arisen from an endosymbiotic relationship between a cyanobacteria and flagellated, heterotropich, eukaryotic cell
• found in fresh water, marine, and terrestrial places
• pigments: carotenoids, chlorophylls a and b
• cell wall: cellulose
• store carbs as starch
• form symbiotic relationships such as in lichen 
• can be unicellular or multicellular 
• 3 divergent evolutionary trends: 1. motile colonies  seen in Volvox 2. repeated division of the nucleus without cytokinesis seen in Ulothrix 3. true multicellular forms seen in Ulva 

Phylum Gymnamoeba 

• comprises a large and diverse group of amoebozoans
• ubiwuitous in soil, fresh water, and marine
• most heterotropich, actively seek and consume bacteria/other protists
• some feed on detritus (non-living organic matter) 
• image: Amoeba

Phylum Chrysophyta 

• commonly called golden algae
• pigments: carotenoids, xanthophyll, chlorophyll a and c
• store carbs in laminarin
• important component of plankton
• some are mixotrophs

• brown algae
• pigment: carotenoids, xanthophyll, chlorophyll a and c 
• multicellular
• marine
• store carbs in laminarin 
• common seaweeds
• more prevalent in cooler waters
• largest, most complex algal group
• includes kelps (can be 20m long)
• produces alginic acid (gummy material) which is an important stabilizer and emulsifier for food (ice cream, pudding, salad dressing) 
• cell wall: cellulose 

• red algae
• most abundant, large algae in warm coastal waters of tropical oceans
• do not have flagella ever 
• pigments: carotenoids, chlorophyll a and d (d is unique to the reds)
• accessory pigment: phycoerythrin (gives them their color), phycocyanin (type of phycobilins) 
• some are not red
• accessory pigments allow red algae to absorb blue and green light (this can reach up to 260m deep in ocean) 
• some are heterotrophic on other red algae
• more prevalent in warmer waters
• most multicellular
• some have calcium carbonate walls and found in reefs
• agar and carrageenan come from this group
• used for sushi
• store carbs in Floridean starch 

Phylum Myxogastrida

• commonly known as slime molds 
• progress from a large coenocytic mass called a plasmodium, a multinucleated mass with continuous cytoplasm unbound by membranes or walls
• usually diploid
• usually brightly colored 
• life cycle Campbell 8th ed. pg 594

• cellular slime molds
• looks similar to plasmodial slime mold, but cells are seperated by individual membranes
• no flagellated stage
• haploid
• life cycle Campbell 8th ed. pg 595

• includes all-parasitic genus, Entamoeba 
• Entamoebas infect all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates 
• E. histolytica, causes amoebic dystenery, spread by contaminated drinking water, third leading cause of death from parasites

• all eukaryotic
• most unicellular 
• some exist as colonies
• some multicellular
• must have aerobic respiration
• can be free-living, parasitic, or symbiotic 
• some heterotrophs, some photoautotrophs, some mixotrophs
• all need moisture 

• live below the mud 
• give off CO₂
• poisioned by oxygen

• live in very salty places 
• color fromo bacteriorhodopsin
• have simplest form of photophosphorylation
• found in Great Salt Lake or Dead Sea

• Older name thermoacidophile
• live with pH 2 and temps above 60C
• found in deep sea vents or hot sulfur springs

• 1-10um
• plasma membranes used like organelles
• have ribosomes (different from eukaryotes) 
• 1 double-stranded circular piece of DNA
• can have extra-chromosomal DNA called plasmids
• capsule- protective layer outside of cell wall
• pilli-projections attached to the outerlayer of cell 
• pilli can be used for attachment 
• flagella- no microtubules or microtubulin, made of flagellin
• divide by binary fission
• mutation major source of variation
• most are heterotrophic and saprobes (feed on dead stuff)
• some form endospores (cells able to withstand harsh environmental conditions) 

Energy: light

Carbon: CO₂

• many symbiotic with plants
• convert atmospheric nitrogen into compound plants can use to make proteins, in return plants share products of photosynthesis

• important in nitrogen recycling
• oxidizes NH₄⁺ into NO₂^-

• "sulfur" bacteria
• oxidizes H₂S producing sulfur as waste
• E. coli, Legionella, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella

• slime-producing Myxobacteria 
• Bdellvibrios which attack other bacteria

• many members pathogenic to humans and animals
• Camphylobacter, causes blood poisoning and intestinal inflammation
• Helicobacter pylori, causes stomach ulcers 

• only survives in animal cells 
• depends on host for ATP 
• contains no peptidoglycan in cell wall
• Chlamydia trachomatis, most common STD, most common cause of blindness, causes nongonoccal urethritis

• use flagella to spiral themselves through environment
• Treponema pallidum, causes syphilis
• Borrelia burgodrferi, causes Lyme disease

• Actinomycetes; 2 species cause tuberculosis and leprosy
• actinomycetes also responsible for "earthy" odor in rich soil
• member sof genus Streptomyces, source of many antibiotics
• Bacillus antrhacis, anthrax
• Clostridium botulinum, causes botulism
• Streptococcus sp. and Staphlycoccus sp.
• Includes Mycoplasmas, only bacteria known to lack a cell wall 
• Mycoplasmas tiniest known cells
• one species causes walking peneumonia

• photosynthetic
• have photosystem I and II 
• contain chlorophyll a
• chlorophyll found in thylakoid membranes scattered throughout cytoplasm
• often arranged in filaments
• some have heterocyst, specialized cells which "fix" atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia

• p+q=1
• p²+2pq+q²=1
• p=dominant
• q=recessive
• pq=heterozygous
• Rules: 
• no mutation
• non gene flow (immigration/emigration)
• random mating
• large population
• no natural selection