Term
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Definition
1. Patient Studies
2. Neuroimaging Studies
3. Electrophysiological studies |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Patient Studies |
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Definition
1. Lesions, Surgery, or focal injury (Broca's aphasics)
2. Diseases and developmental disorders (Alzheimer's disease)
3. Special cases (split brain patients) |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Advantages/Disadvantages of Patient studies |
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Definition
ADVANTAGE: direct link between brain area and behavior
DISADVANTAGES: 1) extent of damage may not be clear, 2) cognitive process may be affected by damage located elsewhere |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Neuroimaging Studies |
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Definition
1. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRIs)
3. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRIs) |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Advantages/Disadvantages of Neuroimaging Studies |
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Definition
ADVANTAGES:
-neural activity in normal brain
-localize specific cognitive processes
-high spatial resolution
DISADVANTAGES:
-indirect measure of neural activity
-poor temporal resolution |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Electrophysiological Studies |
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Definition
1. Single cell recordings
2. Intracranial Electrode Stimulation
3. Event-related Potential Recordings (ERP)
4. Cortical Basis |
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Term
METHODS OF STUDY
Advantages/Disadvantages of Electrophysiological Studies |
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Definition
ADVANTAGES:
-direct measure of neuronal activity
-high temporal resolution
DISADVANTAGES:
-poor spatial resolution |
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Term
AUTISM
primary characteristics |
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Definition
1. impairments in social interactions
2. impairments in communication
3. restricted interest and repetitive behaviors |
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Term
AUTISM
other characteristics |
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Definition
- mental retardation
- motor problems
- sleep problems
- eating difficulties |
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Term
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Definition
-6/1000
-4 times as many boys than girls |
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Term
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Definition
-no known causes
-strong genetic influence |
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Term
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Definition
-alterations of brain development occur shortly after conception
-structural abnormalities (BUT, may be confounded with mental retardation) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
autistic individuals with one or more areas of expertise, ability or brilliance
(1-10% of autistics) |
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Term
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Definition
-reduced gray matter volume in fronto-striatal, parietal, and superior temporal areas
-reduced white matter in cerebellar and limbic areas
*suggests that abnormalities in limbic-striatal "social" brain systems may contribute to autism |
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Term
WILLIAMS SYNDROME
characteristics |
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Definition
1. elfin-like facial characteristics
2. severe mental retardation; extremely impaired spatial ability
3. hyperverbal; very good language and music skills
4. pleasant dispositions; very sociable |
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Term
WILLIAMS SYNDROME
prevalence |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-known genetic mutation
--> deletion of about 20 genes on one allele of chromosome #7
-stems from a sperm or egg cell that, by chance, suffers loss of genes |
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Term
WILLIAMS SYNDROME
neuropathlogy |
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Definition
| gray matter reductions in visual and parietal cortex, but intact frontal lobe, temporal lobes, and cerebellum |
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Term
WILLIAMS SYNDROME
prognosis |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| any intracranial tumor created by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division |
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Term
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Definition
-can develop slowly
-eventually can include neurologic signs, elevated intracranial pressure, and epilepsy |
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Term
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Definition
encapsulated brain tumors underneath the skull (between the meninges) that are almost always benign (do not grow in the surrounding tissue)
-can often be removed with surgery |
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Term
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Definition
cancerous and grow diffusely into the surrounding tissue
-many are METASTATIC (transported by the bloodstream from another part of body)
-generally require surgery followed by radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy |
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Term
| Closed (non-missile) head injury |
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Definition
skull is not penetrated or broken
(may occur in wide or focal area) |
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Term
CLOSED HEAD INJURY
common causes |
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Definition
-traffic accidents
-home and occupational accidents
-falls
-assaults
-BIKE ACCIDENTS |
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Term
CLOSED HEAD INJURY
symptoms |
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Definition
-loss of consciousness
-confusion
-drowsiness
-personality change
-seizures
-nausea
-headache
-a lucid interval (patient appears conscious only to deteriorate later) |
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Term
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Definition
| can happen when brain slams against skull causing bleeding inside brain |
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Term
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Definition
-mild concussions often don't result in any damage
-can be associated with both anterograde and retrograde amnesia |
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Term
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Definition
(aka cerebral vascular accident)
-acute neurological injury in which the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted
-can create a cascade of events that can cause brain cells to die or be seriously damaged
*3rd leading cause of death; leading cause of adult disability |
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Term
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Definition
-advanced age
-female gender
-high blood pressure
-high cholesterol
-cigarettes
-migraines
-thrombophilia |
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Term
cerebral hemorrhage
(hemorrhagic stroke) |
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Definition
| form of stroke that occurs when a blood vessel in brain ruptures or bleeds |
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Term
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Definition
blood vessel becomes occluded and blood supply to part of brain is totally or partially blocked
(cause of approximately 80% of strokes) |
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Term
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Definition
a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures
-EEG recordings show abnormal, excessive, and synchronized neural activity across brain during seizure |
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Term
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Definition
| does not involve entire brain |
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Term
EPILEPSY
simple partial seizures |
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Definition
| restricted to motor areas of brain |
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Term
EPILEPSY
complex partial seizures |
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Definition
restricted to temporal lobe
(also called temporal lobe epilepsy)
-symptoms can range from convulsive, repetitive behaviors to auras and strong feelings of deja vu |
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Term
EPILEPSY
Generalized seizures |
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Definition
-involve entire brain
-some begin in very focal area and then spread throughout the brain |
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Term
EPILEPSY
Petit Mai Seizures |
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Definition
produce symptoms that include:
1. disruption of consciousness
2. a vacant look
3. fluttering eyelids |
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Term
EPILEPSY
Grand Mai Seizure |
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Definition
produce symptoms that include:
1. loss of consciousness
2. loss of equilibrium
3. violent convulsions |
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Term
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Definition
| associated with thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency as a result of chronic alcoholism or severe malnutrition |
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Term
KORSAKOFF'S SYNDROME
symptoms |
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Definition
-ataxia
-apathy
-tremors
-paralysis of eye muscles
-coma
-amnesia
-lack of insight into condition
-confabulation |
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Term
KORSAKOFF'S SYNDROME
treatment |
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Definition
-replacement of thiamine
-providing proper nutrition and hydration
*if successful, signs of recovery will show within two years but recovery is often incomplete |
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Term
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Definition
- a genetic disorder caused by presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome
- result of an accident that happens during ovulation of egg before fertilization |
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Term
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Definition
0.15% of births
(more common in older women) |
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Term
DOWN SYNDROME
characteristics |
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Definition
-physical differences:
1. flattening of nose and skull
2. almond shaped eyes
3. shortened limbs
4. poor muscle tone
5. protruding tongue
- mild to severe mental retardation
- tendency toward concrete thinking and naivete |
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Term
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Definition
-auto-immune disease characterized by degeneration of myelin, resulting in neuronal death and formation of plaques in brain and spinal cord
-disruption in fast, saltatory conductance; sometimes loss of conductance altogether |
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Term
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
results |
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Definition
-weakness
-paralysis or spasms
-impaired coordination
-visual problems
-etc. |
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Term
| HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE (HD) |
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Definition
| (aka Huntington's chorea) rare, inherited neurological disorder that affects muscle coordination |
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Term
HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE (HD)
symptoms |
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Definition
-abnormal body movements (called chorea)
-lack of coordination
-affects a number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality
*physical symptoms often become noticeable in a person's 40s (but can occur at any age) |
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Term
HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE (HD)
prognosis |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, slowing of physical movement (bradykinesia) and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement (akinesia) |
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Term
PARKINSON'S DISEASE
symptoms |
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Definition
-results of excessive muscle contractions (caused by insufficient formation and action of dopamine)
- high level cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems |
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Term
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Definition
-neurodegenerative disease; most common type of dementia
-consists principally of neuronal loss or atrophy, together with formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles |
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Term
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
symptoms |
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Definition
-loss of memory (usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily more pronounced)
-deficits in language, object recognition, reasoning, and planning |
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Term
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
causes |
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Definition
-no known causes
-genetic factors known to be important |
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Term
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Definition
-Henry Molaison ("Hippocampus Man")
-Brain damaged patients provide DISSOCIATION between memory systems
-The hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe in both hemispheres were surgically removed
==> this resulted in anterograde amnesia (no new episodic memories) |
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Term
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Definition
-an increase in synaptic efficiency arises from the presynaptic neurons repeated and persistent stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron
-"CELLS THAT FIRE TOGETHER, WIRE TOGETHER"
- if a weak and strong synapse act on a cell at same time, weak synapse becomes stronger |
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Term
| Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| a stable and enduring increase in the magnitude of responses of neurons after afferent cells have been stimulated with electrical stimuli of moderately high frequency (a rapid train of electrical impulses) |
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Term
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Definition
1. with repeated activation of AMPA receptors, change in postsynaptic membrane potential drives Mg2+ out of NMDA channels allowing rapid influx of Ca2+
2. this causes more AMPA receptors to fuse with the membrane and it sends retrograde messengers to enhance subsequent neurotransmitter release
3. this change makes the postsynaptic neuron MORE RESPONSIVE |
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Term
Working Memory
(function, operate, region) |
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Definition
limited capacity memory store that can maintain unrehearsed info for 20-30 seconds (usually 7 plus or minus 2 items)
-FUNCTION: hold info online
-OPERATE: explicit
-REGION: prefrontal cortex |
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Term
Procedural memory
(function, operate, region) |
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Definition
stuff you know how to do
-FUNCTION: how to
-OPERATE: implicit
-REGION: basal ganglia |
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Term
Episodic Memory
(function, operate, region) |
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Definition
stuff that's happened to you
-FUNCTION: personal events
-OPERATE: explicit
-REGION: hippocampus; MTL (Medial Temporal Lobe) |
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Term
EPISODIC MEMORY
vs.
SEMANTIC MEMORY |
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Definition
EPISODIC: explicit memories for particular events or experiences in one's life
SEMANTIC MEMORY: explicit or implicit memories concerning facts and general knowledge about the world |
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Term
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Definition
1. wakefulness
2. stage 1
3. stage 2
4. stage 3
5. stage 4
6. REM sleep |
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Term
STAGES OF SLEEP
wakefulness |
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Definition
| -characterized by LOW-AMPLITUDE, HIGH FREQUENCY EEG waveforms (beta activity) |
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Term
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Definition
-as you relax and close your eyes, ALPHA RHYTHMS (oscillations 9-12 Hz) begin to appear
-LOW-AMP, SLIGHTLY LOWER FREQ
-if subjects are awakened, often don't know they were sleeping
-enter hypnagogic state and lose some muscle tone and conscious awareness |
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Term
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Definition
-characterized by SLEEP SPINDLES (oscillations of 12-14 Hz) and K complexes (sharp spikes) in periodic bursts
-lose all conscious awareness of external environment
-40-50% of total sleep |
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Term
STAGES OF SLEEP
stages 3 & 4 |
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Definition
-characterized by HIGH-AMP, LOW FREQ waveforms (DELTA WAVES)
-period is referred to as SLOW WAVE SLEEP (SWS)
-stage 3 = brief transition to stage 4
-stage 4 takes up 10-15% of night; predominates in first third of night
--deepest stage of sleep (during which night terrors, bed wetting, sleep walking, and sleep talking occur)
--heart rate and respiration = slow
--body temp = reduced |
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Term
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Definition
-sleep cycles through the stages about every 90 minutes
-when you return to stage 1, you enter REM sleep which is characterized by LOW AMP, HIGH FREQ waveforms similar to wakefulness
--heart rate and respiration = increased
--lose almost all muscle tone in skeletal muscles
--eyes move rapidly behind closed eyelids (REM)
-20% of sleep; last third of night
-most vivid dreams |
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Term
| Recuperation theory of sleep |
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Definition
| being awake disrupts the homeostatic mechanisms of out body and that sleep gives our bodies time to recuperate that homeostasis |
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Term
| Circadian Theory of Sleep |
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Definition
| sleep is the result of an internal timing mechanism that has evolved to keep us safe from predators and accidents |
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Term
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Definition
-most animals' behavioral, physiological, and biochemical systems display a rhythm of approximately 24 hours (actually 25 for humans)
-neural basis of this biological clock = SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS (SCN) |
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Term
| Reticular Activating System |
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Definition
| the reticular formation (which is a group of nuclei in the brain stem) projects axons diffusely throughout forebrain, and it appears to regulate wakefulness and sleep |
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Term
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Definition
1. Falling
2. Being attacked or pursued
3. Repeatedly doing something
4. School, teachers, studying
5. Sexual experiences |
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Term
| Characteristics of Dreams |
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Definition
-bizzare, random events
-images morph into each other
-emotion laden
-sexual
-time out of sequence
-irrational
-quickly forgotten |
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Term
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Definition
1. Freudian view
2. Problem-solving view
3. Activation-Synthesis hypothesis
4. Memory Consolidation Hypothesis |
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Term
| THEORIES OF DREAMSFreudian view |
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Definition
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Term
THEORIES OF DREAMS
problem solving view |
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Definition
| creative thinking about problems |
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Term
THEORIES OF DREAMS
activation-synthesis hypothesis |
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Definition
| cortex creates a story out of the random firings from brain stem |
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Term
THEORIES OF DREAMS
Memory consolidation hypothesis |
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Definition
| events of the day are consolidated in the hippocampus during the night |
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Term
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Definition
| proposed that there are seven basic emotional expressions displayed in all cultures |
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Term
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Definition
1. anger
2. sadness
3. happiness
4. fear
5. disgust
6. surprise
7. contempt |
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Term
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Definition
1. Feelings (private and subjective)
2. Actions (like defending or attacking)
3. Physiological arousal (expressions or displays of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses)
4. Motivational programs (coordinate responses to solve specific adaptive problems) |
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Term
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Definition
1. Folk psychology
2. James-Lange Theory
3. Cannon-Bard Theory
4. Schacter's Cognitive Theory |
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Term
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
Folk Psychology |
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Definition
-emotions cause the body to react
stimulus-> perception/interpretation-> particular emotion experienced-> specific pattern of autonomic arousal |
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Term
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
James-Lange Theory |
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Definition
-the bodily response evokes emotional experience
stimulus-> perception/interpretation-> specific pattern of autonomic arousal-> particular emotion experienced |
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Term
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
Cannon-Bard Theory |
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Definition
-bodily responses and emotional experience are SIMULTANEOUS and independent; brain must interpret the situation to which emotion is appropriate
stimulus-> perception/interpretation-> (1) general autonomic arousal (2) particular emotion experienced |
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Term
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
Schacter's Cognitive Theory |
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Definition
-The intensity of emotion can be affected by the bodily responses and that the brain continuously assesses the situation, and that cognitive centers can modulate emotions through feedback (two factor theory)
stimulus-> ANS arousal-> search the environment-> cognitive component |
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Term
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Definition
-proposed in 1937
-originally included mammiliary bodies, anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, and the fornix
-later, MacLean (1949) included the amygdala and other regions ==> LIMBIC SYSTEM |
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Term
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Definition
-bilateral removal of temporal lobes in monkeys and cats (including amygdala and hippocampus)
--tame; flattening of emotions
--failure to recognize common objects
--extreme oral tendencies
--hypersexuality |
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Term
AMYGDALA DAMAGE
vs.
ORBITOFRONTAL DAMAGE |
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Definition
AMYGDALA DAMAGE: can lead to problems in learned associations between emotions and stimuli
ORBITOFRONTAL DAMAGE: can lead to a flattening affect and inability to regulate emotional responses |
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Term
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Definition
| the delusion that others, or the self, have been replaced by impostors |
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Term
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Definition
we are born with innate capacity to learn language
*although it's innate, there is a CRITICAL PERIOD during first few years of life in which you HAVE to learn language |
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Term
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Definition
| responsible for expressive languages, or language production |
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Term
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Definition
| responsible for receptive language, or language comprehension |
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Term
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Definition
| comprehending language-related visual input necessary for reading and writing |
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Term
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Definition
| the white fiber pathway that connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-a non-language impairment in the ability to execute movements necessary for speech
-understand language fine
-brain does not connect to muscles in mouth |
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Term
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Definition
| an impairment in expressive language |
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Term
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Definition
| an impairment in receptive language |
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Term
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Definition
| an impairment in the ability to name objects |
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Term
CEREBRAL SPECIALIZATION
Left Hemisphere |
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Definition
-specialized for language
-complete language processing (grammar, syntax, etc.)
-specialized for interpretation of events |
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Term
CEREBRAL SPECIALIZATION
Right Hemisphere |
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Definition
-some patients have a partial lexicon (can comprehend some words)
-specialized for visuospatial processsing
-better at discriminating in orientations and spatial locations of objects |
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