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Dualism - the notion that the mind is subject to only spiritual interactions, while the body and brain are subject only to material interactions
(challenged the church) |
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-interested in people who suffered from strokes
-patients had issues with speaking (broccus aphasia). ex. Patient "Tan"
-BRAIN LOCALIZATION: The concept that specific brain regions are responsible for various types of experience, behavior, and psychological processes. |
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| railroad worker; damage to frontal lobe; first brought idea that brain is a general processor (against brain localization); later discovered that he had problems with CONTROL (idea of brain localization grew) |
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Phrenology - people dedicated to idea that certain parts of brain are responsible for certain traits
-people superior in certain areas have larger parts of the brain responsible for those traits
--> identify traits of people by studying bumps on brain/head |
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-The Neuron Doctrine - the hypothesis that the brain is composed of separate cells that are distinct structually, metabollically, and functionally
-The brain is one giant tube that is intertwined |
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-midbrain, medulla, pons
-regulates reflex activities critical for survival, such as heart rate and respiration |
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-the little brain
-motor coordination and balance |
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| the point at which the two optic nerves meet |
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| a relay site for sensory processes |
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-connects the hemispheres
-bundle of axon fibers
-Roger Sperry's Epileptics (sever corpus callosum) |
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| association cortex involved in decision making, monitoring behavior, and directing attention |
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| somatosensory (touch; spatial attention |
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| auditory processing, language, comprehension, object recognition |
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motor control, reasoning, language, production, inhibitory control, working memory
-->Phineas Gage |
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-emotion (amygdala)
-memory (hippocampus) |
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-made of cell bodies, surrounds brain
-no myelin sheath around it
-some layers receive information and process it; other layers send information following processing
-in most cortex, the cells responding to a certain type of information are arranged in columns (columnar organization) |
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-cytoarchitectonics
-different areas have different features
-Brodmann mapped the brain and assigned each distinct area and number
-set up based on ARCHITECTURE, not functions |
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-surrounded in myelin sheath
-several long tracts, short tracts, long projection fibers
-motor tracts - start in motor cortex and run though the whole body all the way to the toes |
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| anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, posterior cerebral artery |
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| a disorder of blood vessels - either a block or rupture - that destroys or cripples particular brain regions |
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protects the brain from some substances that may be found in blood
-semipermeable membrane |
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transmit information throughout body
-electrical and chemical in nature |
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| the synchronized excitation of large groups of nerve cells, evident in ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG) as an abnormal pattern of brain activity |
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-soma
-contains cell nucleus |
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-one of the extensions of the cell body that receives inputs from other neurons
-contain many dendritic spines where incoming neurons make contact
-contain receptors specialized to receive certain neurotransmitters |
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-a single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons
-may be wrapped in myelin (fatty tissue) which speeds up signal
-may be short (within the brain) or very long (from brain down spinal cord) |
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-the end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a SYNAPSE on another neuron
-contains vesicles (small packages) filled with neurotransmitters
-neurons can have multiple axon terminals |
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1. Multipolar neuron or multipolar interneuron
2. Bipolar neuron (lateral communication)
3. Unipolar neuron |
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| Golgi Stain and Fluorescent Dye |
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Definition
-fills the entire neuron so one can see all the parts
-easier to see abnormalities in shape and connectivity |
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-highlights the cell body only
-easier to visualize the organization of a collection of neurons in a given brain region
-easier to spot missing neurons or a disorganized group of neurons |
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-cell body/soma
-contains DNA |
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-cell body/soma
-aerobic energy release |
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-cell body/soma
-synthesizes proteins and fats |
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-cell body/soma
-a substructure of the endoplasmic reticulum that synthesizes proteins |
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-cell body/soma
-packaged molecules in vesicles |
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-cell body/soma
-rapidly transports material through the neuron |
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-cell membrane
-two layers of linked fatty molecules, within which specialized proteins float
-one important type of membrane-spanning protein is called an ION CHANNEL |
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| an axon terminal making contact with a dendritic spine |
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-provide structure and support for neurons, and they may modulate function
-"glia" = greek word for "glue"
-90% of cells in brain are glial cells |
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1. Astrocytes
2. Microglial cells
3. Oligodendrocytes
4. Schwann cells |
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-star-shaped cells with numerous processes that run in all directions
-extensions of astrocytes provide structural support for the brain and they provide a role in the passage of chemicals from the blood to the neurons |
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| extremely small cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells |
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| specialized cells that form myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the central nervous system |
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| specialized cells that form myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system |
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| a fatty tissue that speeds up the conduction of an electrical signal down the axon |
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-disorder affecting myelination
-auto immune disease characterized by degeneration of myelin, resulting in neuronal death and formation of plaques (hardenings) in brain and spinal cord
-disruption in fast, saltatory conductance; sometimes total loss of conductance
-results in weakness, paralysis or spasms, impaired coordination, visual problems, etc. |
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| an atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by gaining/losing electrons |
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| a pore in the cell membrane that permits the passage of certain ions through the membrane when the channels are open |
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the property of a membrane to allow some substances to pass through but not others
-some ion channels are gated and can open and close in response to changes in voltage (passive process - does not require energy)
-some ion channels remain open |
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| four factors establish the resting membrane potential |
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Definition
1. concentration gradients
2. electrostatic pressure
3. permeability of the membrane to ions
4. active ion transport (Na+/K+ pump) |
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| particles in random motion tend to move from areas of high to low concentration |
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Definition
| like charges repel each other and opposites attract |
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| permeability of the membrane to ions |
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Definition
the ion channels contributing to the membrane potential are VOLTAGE-GATED (open/close when the membrane potential reaches a particular voltage)
-at rest:
--Na+ channels mostly closed (req abt -50mV to open)
--K+ channels are open (-90mV or higher)
--Cl- channels are open (-70 mV or higher) |
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| active ion transport (Na+/K+ pump) |
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Definition
| a transporter that uses energy provided by mitochondria to pump 3 Na+ out of the neuron for every 2 K+ pumped into neuron |
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-Na+ want to ENTER neuron
-K+ want to LEAVE neuron
-Cl- want to remain at equilibrium |
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| when neurotransmitters are released from axon terminal of presynaptic neuron and diffuse across the synapse connecting with receptors in dendrites of postsynaptic neuron, they can change the voltage or electrical potential of the postsynaptic neuron |
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| Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) |
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Definition
some PSPs can make the inside of the cell more positive relative to the outside
-->DEPOLARIZATION (movement of positive charge inside or negative charge outside) |
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| Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) |
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Definition
some PSPs can make the inside of the cell more negative relative to outside
--> HYPERPOLARIZATION (movement of positive charge outside or negative charge inside) |
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Definition
| the integration of PSPs arriving at different parts of the neuron |
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| the integration of PSPs arrive at different times |
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| size, type, and effect of PSPs (small changes in voltage across the membrane) depend upon several factors... |
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Definition
1. frequency of firing and neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neuron
2. number and identity of presynaptic neurons firing at same time on a postsynaptic neuron
3. the neutrotransmitter/receptor combination
4. number of a particular type of receptor on the postsynaptic neuron
5. distance of receptors from the axon hillock |
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Definition
-initial segment
-area where the cell body becomes the axon
-high in voltage-gated Na+ channels
-highly sensitive to ionic flux
-where the action potential is generated |
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Definition
-a massive momentary (~1 msec) reversal of the membrane potential (from -70mV to 50mV)
-NOT graded. ALL OR NOTHING
-propagated down entire axon
-generated when depolarization reaches a particular threshold of excitation around axon hillock |
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Definition
a change in voltage that opens voltage-gated Na+ channels in area of axon hillock
-Na+ rushes in = membrane potential depolarizes up to 50mV
-ALL OR NONE PROPERTY |
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-losing positive charge
-falling phase
-Na+ channels are closed but K+ continues to leave neuron |
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-undershoot
-below resting potential |
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| period of time when neuron is hyperpolarized |
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| absolute refractory period |
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Definition
| impossible to fire another action potential |
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| relative refractory period |
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Definition
| possible to fire another action potential but only if you apply greater than normal stimulation |
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Definition
-Na+ channels open => action potential
-myelin prevents K+ leakage out, channeling depolarizes down axon interior
-depolarization spreads within axon very rapidly
-action potential is triggered at the new NODE OF RANVIER and continues from note to note as fast as 150m/s |
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-a chemical, gas or hormone that is synthesized in and released from a neuron
-most neurotransmitters are stored in membraes called VESICLES
-release of neurotransmitter occurs when vesicles "dump" them into synaptic cleft |
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Definition
-peptides and hormones
-synthesized in the CELL BODY and then transported down the axon to the terminal |
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Definition
-amino acids, monoamines, acetylcholine and gases
-synthesized in the terminals |
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Term
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Definition
1. action potential travels down axon of presynaptic neuron
2. depolarization of the membrane in the terminals activates voltage gated calcium channels (Ca2+ enters)
3. exocytosis
4. the neurotransmitters interact with receptors on postsynaptic neuron -> PSPs |
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Term
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Definition
1. Ca2+ turns on machinery to stimulate vesicles to move to the "active zone" (the site where vesicles dock prior to neurotransmitter release)
2. membrane of the vesicles fuses the cell membrane in the active zone and neurotransmitters are released into synaptic cleft
*small neurotrans. are released in pulses when Ca2+ signal is sent
*large neurotrans. are only released when there is higher rates of firing and Ca2+ levels rise in terminal |
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Definition
| a molecule of the correct shape that can fit into a receptor protein and activate or block it |
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Definition
| directly control ion channels when they receive a particular neurotransmitter |
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| receive particular transmitters, but do not directly control ion channels. Instead, they activate molecules known as G-PROTEINS. |
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-a metabotropic receptor that is located in the presynaptic membrane
-tell the axon terminal how many neurotransmitters have been released
-regulate Ca2+ channels and the machinery involved in exocytosis |
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| ending neurotransmission (3 types) |
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Definition
1. reuptake
2. enzymatic degradation
3. diffusion |
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Definition
| transporters in the terminals (or on the dendrites) take the neurotransmitter back inside the neuron to be repackaged or degraded |
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| enzymes found in the synaptic cleft break down the neurotransmitter after it's released |
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| neurotransmitters simply move out of synaptic cleft |
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-larger molecules that more resemble proteins
-endorphins (pain & pleasure)
-broken down by degradative enzymes in synaptic cleft |
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Definition
-small molecule neurotransmitter
-building blocks of proteins
-glutamate, glycine, aspartate (from food; excitatory)
-GABA (made from glutamate in neurons and astrocytes; inhibitory)
-use reuptake mechanisms |
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Definition
-small molecule neurotransmitter
-nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
-made in cell body and diffuse across membrane (not released in vesicles)
-believed to play a role in retrograde signaling (from postsyn. to presyn. neuron)
-very short lived; broken down inside cells quickly by enzymes |
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Definition
-small molecule neurotrans.
-a class on its own
-made from putting an acetyl group into choline
-found at neuromuscular junctions
-degraded in the synapse by acetylcholinesterase |
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Definition
-small molecule neurotrans.
-made from single amino acid
-more diffuse effects than amino acid neurotrans.
-highly branched axons and their cell bodies tend to be clustered in small groups in brain stem
-dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
a naturally occuring molecule, such as a neurotrans., that binds and activates the receptor
*BOTH endogenous and exogenous ligands are AGONISTS |
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bind the receptor, but fail to activate it
-they block agonists |
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