One way

Sun

↓

 Biosphere

Producers/Consumers

↓

Ends up lost as heat energy, back out to environment

Two kinds of chemical reactions:

_______ reactions (catabolic) release energy, splits reactant into two products plus energy, uses hydrolysis

_______ reactions (anabolic) use energy to bond two reactants, uses dehydration synthesis

Two kinds of chemical reactions:

Exergonic reactions (catabolic) release energy, splits reactant into two products plus energy, uses hydrolysis

Endergonic reactions (anabolic) use energy to bond two reactants, uses dehydration synthesis

reactant - - - - -

                  (energy released) 

                                      product

                                      product

• Catabolic reaction
• Reactant has higher energy than products
• Hydrolysis

                                                      - - - - - product

                          (energy supplied)

reactant

reactant

• Anabolic reaction
• Reactants have higher energy than product
• Dehydration synthesis

Lower the activation energy needed for a process; makes it easier for reactions to happen

Enzymes are proteins, end in -ase

Enzymes work on substrates (specifically, the active site of the substrate)

Enzymes are affected by pH, temperature, presence of activators and inhibitors

Enzymes are not modified by reactions - can work again and again

A _________ can be a metal ion and associates with an enzyme - is necessary for its function (is a piece of the puzzle)

A ________ is an organic molecule that is a ________.

A cofactor associates with an enzyme and is necessary for its function (is a piece of the puzzle)

A coenzyme is an organic molecule that is a cofactor

What is the energy that powers hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis? Where does the activation energy come from?

Energy for Transcription and Translation?

Hydrolysis and Dehydration Synthesis: Powered by ATP

Transcription: Powered by ATP

Translation: Powered by GTP

Chemical Reaction using Enzymes

                     Enz   ______ A  Enz   ______ B            

______ A    →                    →                        

                 ______ B          ______ C

How does this work with alcohol?

Chemical Reaction using Enzymes

                      Enz   Product A  Enz   Product B            

Substrate A   →                    →                        

                      Substrate B        Substrate C

Alcohol:

Ethanol → Alcohol Dehydrogenase → Acetaldehyde

(substrate)           (enzyme)                (product)

Acetaldehyde → Catalase → Acetic Acid

(substrate)     (enzyme)      (product)

Carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

↓

split into simple sugars (glucose)

↓

In cytoplasm, undergoes glycolysis - creates 2 ATP

↓

One of the ATP goes into Krebs cycle and creats 2 ATP

↓

The other ATP goes to Electron Transport Chain and creates 32 ATP

Each glucose molecule creates 36 ATP molecules (32+2+2)

DNA Structure

Double-helix wraps around _______ and _______ to form a ___________________

DNA Structure

Double-helix wraps around histones and nucleosomes to form a chromatin fiber

• Contain all the info for an organism
• 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 total in humans
• 22 autosomal or somatic pairs
  • autosomes: same length, shape, and genes
• 1 sex pair
  • XX is female, XY is male
• Chromosomes show up in a karyotype

I = chromosome

X = ____________

middle of X is _______________

I = chromosome

X = sister chromatid

middle of X is centromere

When radioactive tracer put in protein coat of virus, the tracer did not transfer to the bacteria the virus preyed upon.

When the radioactive tracer was put in the DNA of the virus, it did transfer to the bacteria. Therefore the DNA is what transfers the hereditary material.

Alfred Hershey/Martha Chase

Telomeres

Telomerase repairs telomeres to prevent them from getting shorter. Adult cells turn off the production of telomerase, except cancer cells, which is part of what allows them to be "immortal."

Somatic cells are _______

Sex cells are _______

Somatic cells are diploid

Sex cells are haploid

_________ assembles a complementary strand of DNA on each parent strand

_________ seals any gaps in the finished product

DNA Polymerase assembles a complementary strand of DNA on each parent strand

DNA Ligaseseals any gaps in the finished product

• Natural Reproductive Cloning
  • Natural splitting (identical twins)
  • Asexual reproduction
• Artificial Reproductive Cloning
  • Artificial Embryo Splitting
  • Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer: Replace nucleus of unfertilized egg w/nucleus of adult cell

DNA Replication

DNA starts at _______

Proceeds in both directions

Enzyme breaks hydrogen bonds holding double helix together

_______ assembles a complementary strand on the base strand

_______ cleans up and seals any gaps

DNA has two portions:

_______ and ________

DNA Replication

DNA starts at replication fork

Proceeds in both directions

Enzyme breaks hydrogen bonds holding double helix together

DNA Polymerase assembles a complementary strand on the base strand

DNA Ligase cleans up and seals any gaps

DNA has two portions:

promoters/exons (1%) and interons (99%)

The promoters/exons are the genes

Process of DNA/Gene Expression and/or Protein Synthesis

 ________: DNA → mRNA

Enzyme ________ unwinds sections of DNA

Happens in ________

________: mRNA → Amino Acids → Protein

Happens in ________

mRNA ______ are matched to _______ ________

Process of DNA/Gene Expression

 Transcription: DNA → mRNA

Enzyme RNA Polymerase unwinds sections of DNA

Happens in nucleus

During creation of mRNA, the interons are removed

Translation: mRNA → Amino Acids → Protein

Happens in ribosomes

mRNA codons are matched to tRNA anticodons

Human Genome Project

_______ was head of the private lab

_______ was head of the federal lab

Human Genome Project

Greg Ventner was head of the private lab (Celera Genomics) (Genomics = Greg)

Francis Collins was head of the Federal lab

(Federal = Francis)

(Transcription has already happened in the nucleus)

• Initiation: Small ribosomal unit joins with large ribosomal unit
  • Initiator anticodon tRNA binds with first codon in sequence
• Elongation: Ribosome assembles a polypeptide chain
  • tRNAs are released as their amino acids are bonded together (peptide bond)
• Termination: mRNA stop codon is reached (UAA, UAG, UGA)
  • mRNA and polypeptide chain detach from ribosome
  • Polypeptide can join proteins in cytoplasm or enter Rough ER to be packaged and exit cell
  • mRNA breaks apart rapidly

• Deletion: one or more nucleotides are lost from DNA (thalassemia)
• Insertion: one or more nucleotides are inserted in DNA, could be caused by transposable elements
• Base Pair Substitution: nucleotide replaced by a different one, changes the amino acid produced (sickle cell anemia)

Set of 64 codons

Codon = sequence of three adjacent nucleotides

64 codons translate into 20 amino acids

AUG is the start codon (methionine)

UAA, UAG, UGA are stop codons (no amino acid produced)

• Transposable Elements (45% of DNA)
• Mistake in DNA replication
• Ionizing Radiation (X-Rays)
• UV Radiation (sun)
• Chemicals (asbestos)

• Transcription Factors: Proteins that affect whether/how fast genes are expressed. Binds directly to DNA to prevent or enhance RNA polymerase binding
  • Eg: BRCA1, BRCA2 Breast Cancer tumor suppressants
  • Eg: KRAB Zinc Finger, guides difference btw. human and chimp brain function
• Master Genes
  • Homeotic Genes: specific body parts
• Sex Chromosome Genes: Determine male or female
  • Barr Body on second X chromosome of female (equalizes males and females in population) Barr Body = female

Henrietta Lacks (HeLa cell line)

1951

Used to study difference btw. normal cancer cells and cervical cancer cells so wouldn't misdiagnose as infection

Mitosis creates ______ cells

Meiosis creates ______ cells

Mitosis creates diploid, somatic cells

Meiosis creates haploid, sex cells

• Interphase
  • G1: cell increases mass
    • 23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 total
  • S: DNA replication (sister chromatids)
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • G2: cytoplasm doubles
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
• Mitosis
  • Prophase: chromosomes condense, centrosomes polarize, nuclear envelope breaks
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • Metaphase: chromosomes align between spindle poles
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • Anaphase: chromatids separate and move to poles
    • 46 pairs of chromosomes = 92 total
  • Telophase: bundles condense, nuclear envelopes reform
    • two bunches with 23 pairs of chromosomes each = 46 total each
• Cytoplasmic Division: cleavage furrow
  • two cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes each = 46 total each

Mitosis is cloning - chromosome number is maintained throughout.

DNA Replication: Where ________ happen

DNA → _______

Gene Expression: Where _________ happens

DNA → ________

DNA Replication: Where mutations happen

DNA → DNA

Gene Expression: Where transcription & translation happens

DNA → mRNA → Amino Acids → Proteins

DNA or RNA?

AGGUGCAGC

What is the matching string?

RNA (uses Uracil)

TCCACGTCG

RNA    pairs with    DNA

A                          

U                          

G                          

C                          

RNA    pairs with    DNA

A                         T

U                         A

G                         C

C                         G

RNA    pairs with    DNA

                          T

                          A

                          C

                          G

RNA    pairs with    DNA

A                          T

U                          A

G                          C

C                          G

RNA A → DNA ___

RNA U → DNA ___

RNA G → DNA ___

RNA C → DNA ___

RNA A → DNA T

RNA U → DNA A

RNA G → DNA C

RNA C → DNA G

Nitrogenous Bases of RNA

Nitrogenous Bases of DNA

A → ___

U → ___

G ↔ ___

RNA

G (Guanine)

C (Cytosine)

A (Adenine)

U (Uracil)   

DNA

G (Guanine)

C (Cytosine)

A (Adenine)

T (Thymine) 

A → T

U → A

G ↔ C

• Process by which an embryonic cell grows into its purpose
• Homeodomains: region of 60 amino acids that bind to a promoter or other DNA sequence - induces differentiation
• Signaling Molecules:
  • Peptide Hormones - Bind to receptor on cell membrane (need protein help to pass membrane) - triggers cascade of events
  • Steroid Hormones - Bind to receptor in cytoplasm (enters cell through diffusion, no help needed) - made from cholesterol

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

(a type of intersex disorder)

Genetically male (XY), but androgen (testosterone) receptor gene is mutated

Androgen cannot bind, cannot affect gene or development

Female development partially proceeds, vagina with no uterus or ovaries, internal testes

• Interphase
  • G1: cell increases mass
    • 23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 total
  • S: DNA replication (sister chromatids)
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • G2: cytoplasm doubles
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
• Mitosis I
  • Prophase I: chromosomes condense CROSSOVER OCCURS (CHIASMA), centrosomes polarize, nuclear envelope breaks
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • Metaphase I: chromosomes align between spindle poles
    • 23 pairs of sister chromatids = 46 total
  • Anaphase I: chromatids separate and move to poles
    • 23 pairs of SISTER CHROMATIDS = 46 total
  • Telophase I: bundles condense, nuclear envelopes reform
    • two bunches with 23 SINGLE SISTER CHROMATIDS each = 23 total each
• Cytokinesis I: cleavage furrow
  • two cells with 23 SINGLE SISTER CHROMATIDS each = 23 total each
• Interkinesis: rest period
• Mitosis II
  • Prophase II: chromosomes condense, centrosomes polarize, nuclear envelope breaks
    • 23 SINGLE SISTER CHROMATIDS = 23 total
  • Metaphase II: chromosomes align between spindle poles
    • 23 SINGLE SISTER CHROMATIDS = 23 total
  • Anaphase II: chromatids separate and move to poles
    • 23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 total
  • Telophase II: bundles condense, nuclear envelopes reform
    • four bunches with 23 single chromosomes each = 23 total each
• Cytokinesis II: cleavage furrow
  • Four cells with 23 single chromosomes each = 23 total each (haploid gametes)

Meiosis is sexual reproduction - chromosome number is halved (diploid to haploid).

• Initiation: mutation is caused, precancerous cells, proto-oncogens become oncogens
• Promotion: oncogens occur. Benign (partially transformed) cells occur.
• Progression: cancer develops. Malignant cells form, become less differentiated, and start invading normal cells & moving to other parts of the body.

Many antibiotics work by blocking the function of bacterial ribosomes, which kills the cell.

By more closely examining ribosomes, can create better antibiotics

Researchers

Isolated DNA:

Discovered that traits are inherited:

Showed that proportion of bases is roughly equal:

Developed one-gene-one-enzyme theory:

Confirmed that DNA is the hereditary material:

Found out that DNA is in helix pattern:

Got credit for double helix model:

Researchers

Isolated DNA: Friedrich Miescher

Discovered that traits are inherited: Gregor Mendel

Showed that proportion of bases is roughly equal: Erwin Chargaff

Developed one-gene-one-enzyme theory: George Beadle/Edward Tatum

Confirmed that DNA is the hereditary material: Alfred Hershey/Martha Chase

Found out that DNA is in helix pattern: Rosalind Franklin/Maurice Wilkins

Got credit for double helix model: James Watson/Francis Crick

Researchers

Friedrich Miescher:

Gregor Mendel:

Erwin Chargaff:

George Beadle/Edward Tatum:

Alfred Hershey/Martha Chase:

Rosalind Franklin/Maurice Wilkins:

James Watson/Francis Crick:

Researchers

Friedrich Miescher: Isolated DNA

Gregor Mendel: Discovered that traits are inherited

Erwin Chargaff: Showed that proportion of bases is roughly equal

George Beadle/Edward Tatum: Developed one-gene-one-enzyme theory

Alfred Hershey/Martha Chase: Confirmed that DNA is the hereditary material

Rosalind Franklin/Maurice Wilkins: Found out that DNA is in helix pattern

James Watson/Francis Crick: Got credit for double helix model

Cellular Respiration

Definition

1 glucose molecule yields ___ ATP

Cellular Respiration is the process of oxidizing food molecules (e.g. glucose) to carbon dioxide and water.

The energy released in this process is trapped in the form of ATP.

1 glucose molecule yields 36 ATP (2 from glycolysis, 2 from Krebs cycle, 32 from Electron Transport Chain)

Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm. The rest takes place in the mitochondria.

1. Anther
2. Filament
3. Stamen
4. Stigma
5. Style
6. Ovary
7. Carpel
8. Petal
9. Sepal