Term
| What is the purpose of mitosis? |
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Definition
| Separates genetic material evenly between 2 daughter cells |
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Term
| How does the DNA in our cells normally exist before replication and when cells are not starting mitosis? |
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Definition
| They exist because we already have 46 chromosomes. Interphase where there is no replication being done. |
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Term
| Which types of our cells are diploid? Which types of our cells are haploid? |
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Definition
Diploid: Somatic or Body Cells
Haploid: Sperm and egg cells |
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Term
| What are the phases of: a) the cell cycle, b) interphase , c) mitosis, and what happens in each of these phases? |
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Definition
cell cycle: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis
interphase: G1, S, G2
mitosis: PMAT-Prophase, Meta, Ana, Telo |
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Term
| When during the cell cycle would you have sister chromatids in the cell? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is a major difference between cytokinesis in an animal cell compared to a plant cell? |
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Definition
In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms and the cells pull apart.
In plant cells, a cell plate begins to form down the middle of the cell, eventually sealing into two separate cells. |
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Term
| Do prokaryotes do mitosis? |
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Definition
| No, they perform binary fission instead because prokaryotes have no nuclei |
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Term
| What happens if the cell can no longer control the cell cycle? |
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Definition
| Cancers & tumors may form when the body loses control of balance between cell division and cell death. |
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Term
| What are two main purposes for apoptosis? |
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Definition
Also known as Cell Death
1. Weeds out cells that might harm the organism
2. Eliminates excess cells to carve out functional structures like fingers and toes |
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Term
| What are the traits of cancer cells that make them different from non-cancerous cells? |
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Definition
• Look different
• Essentially immortal
• May produce their own signals to divide
• Lack contact inhibition
• May not undergo apoptosis when damaged
• Send signals to stimulate growth of blood vessels |
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Term
| What are two types of genes that when disrupted can cause cancer? How do these genes “get disrupted”? |
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Definition
• Oncogene (go signals) – abnormal and excessive proteins
• Tumor Supressor (stop signals) – gene dna mutates that if both copies of the tumor suppressor gene are damaged, production of growth inhibiting proteins stop |
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Term
| Describe different strategies used in the medical field to treat cancer. |
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Definition
• Surgical tumor removal
• Chemotherapy and radiation (targets all rapidly dividing cells, healthy ones also)
• Angiogenesis inhibitors (stops new blood vessels from forming) |
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Term
| Which division of meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the main differences between sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes? |
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Definition
| Sister chromatids are dna replicated when homologous is directly from the parents |
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Term
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Definition
| Meiosis is a process of cell division in which gametes are produced. Meiosis reduces the diploid cells to haploid cells or gametes. |
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Term
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Definition
Meiosis 1:
• Interphase – similar to that before mitosis with G1, S, and G2 phases
• Prophase I – replicated chromosomes condense, homologs pair, crossing over occurs, spindle forms
• Metaphase I – paired homologs line up and down the center of the cell
• Anaphase I, Telophase I – homologs split and move to opposite poles Meiosis II
Meiosis II
• 2nd interphase occurs in many species
• Prophase II – chromosomes condense again
• Metaphase II – chromosomes line up
• Anaphase II – sister chromatids split
• Telophase II – nuclear envelope reforms |
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Term
| What are three ways in which genetic variability is generated by sexual reproduction? |
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Definition
1. Crossing over
2. Random alignment of chromosome pairs in metaphase I (independent assortment)
3. Random fertilization: |
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Term
| When and between what structures does crossing-over occur? |
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Definition
| Prophase I – replicated chromosomes condense, homologs pair, crossing over occurs, spindle forms |
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Term
| Compare and contrast Meiosis and mitosis |
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Definition
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Term
| What organism did Mendel use for his studies on inheritance patterns? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the P, F1, F2, etc generations? |
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Definition
The P generation is true-breeding.
F1-F2:
1. Grow the F1 peas into plants.
2. Allow the F1 plants to self-pollinate.
3. Count the resulting F2 peas.
4. Always see 3:1, yellow:green. |
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Term
| How are genotype and phenotype related? |
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Definition
Genotype: alleles (genetic makeup) ex. TT or tt
Phenotype: outward expression (appearance outcome) |
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Term
| Write out an example of a dihybrid cross. How many genes are involved in this cross? |
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Definition
| A dihybrid cross contains two heterozygous traits such as texture and color. It tracks two genes at once. |
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Term
| Monohybrid vs. Dihybrid Cross |
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Definition
| Aa x Aa vs RRrrYYyy x RRrrYYyy |
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Term
| Recognize the phenotypic ratios of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. Which phenotypes fit in each group? |
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Definition
Monohybrid: 3:1
Dihybrid: 9:3:3:1 |
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Term
| What are Mendel’s two laws? |
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Definition
Law of Segregation
Law of independent assortment |
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Term
| Mendal’s Law of Segregation? |
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Definition
| When diploid cells undergo meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate. 2 alleles of each gene are packaged into separate gametes. During fertilization, gametes join carrying one member of each homologous pair. |
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Term
| Mendel’s Law of independent assortment? |
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Definition
| Only for genes on different chromosomes. Alleles of different genes move independently into gametes. Alleles for one gene do not influence the segregation of alleles for another gene. |
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Term
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Definition
Incomplete dominance: Heterozygous phenotype is the intermediate between 2 homozygotes.
Example - Red and white flowers make pink flowers |
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Term
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Definition
Heterozygote fully expresses 2 different alleles at the same time.
Example - – ABO blood type – I gene has 3 alleles IA, IB and i |
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Term
| Can disrupting different genes (having different genotypes) lead to similar phenotypes? Please explain. |
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Definition
| Temperature can influence the quantity of pigment molecules in the fur of some animals. Many of our traits are controlled by more than one gene. |
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Term
| Is your genotype solely responsible for your phenotype? |
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Definition
| No. Genotype is the genetic makeup or programmed gene while phenotype is the outcome of it. It does have a lot to do with it though. |
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Term
| What does the distribution of phenotypes of a polygenic trait look like? |
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Definition
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Term
| How is sex determined in a human? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is “mode of inheritance”? |
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Definition
Mode of inheritance is asking yourself two questions which is:
1. Are there about the same number of men and
women with the trait?
Yes = autosomal No = X-linked 2. Does the trait ever skip generations?
Yes = recessive No = probably dominant
37. What is the main indicator on a pedigree that a trait has autosomal inheritance or X-linked inheritance?
Autosomal usually involves females more than males and has the genotype: AA, Aa, aa
X-linked usually has more male affected than females XaXa XaY XAxa |
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Term
| What is the main indicator on a pedigree that a trait is dominant or recessive? |
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Definition
| The main indicator that can determine if the trait is dominant is judging if it skips generations or not. If it was dominant then it would be XAXA but if it was recessive than it would be XaXa |
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Term
| Why are males more likely than females to express an X-linked trait? |
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Definition
| Males are more likely to express the X-linked trait because males only have one X chromosome compared to females having two X. Therefore, it is easier for women to mask certain conditions when the male only has one chromosome to act upon. |
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Term
| How do human cells deal with the difference in the number of X chromosomes in female cells versus male cells? Why could having extra chromosomes be a problem for a cell? |
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Definition
| Two copies of a gene will normally give you twice as much of that protein being made. X-inactivation occurs. |
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Term
| What do we mean when we say DNA is complementary? |
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Definition
“Sequence of each strand defines the sequence of the other”
Example: A-T C-G |
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Term
| What do we mean when we say DNA is antiparallel? |
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Definition
| “Strands are oriented in opposite directions” It’s used to describe the fact that the strands are twisted around each other but terminate at opposite ends. |
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Term
| Describe the process of DNA replication |
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Definition
| The double helix of the DNA unwinds. Then, the enzyme helicase 'unzips' the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Then, the enzyme DNA Polymerase pairs each of the two strands with the correct nitrogenous bases. The top strand is called the 'leading strand' and the bottom strand is called the 'lagging strand'. Then the enzyme ligase glues together the different fragments of the lagging strand of DNA. Now we have two exact replications of DNA, each with 46 chromosomes called daughter cells. |
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Term
| What is the purpose of DNA replication? |
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Definition
| The purpose of DNA replication is to pass on genetic material to grow new cells and to pass on the genome to the daughter cells, ensuring continuity of hereditary information from one cell to another. In order for a cell to divide, it must replicate. |
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Term
| Describe the process of transcription and say where in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells it occurs? |
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Definition
DNA to mRNA (by RNA polymerase) the start codon is (MET)
Eukaryotic cell: nucleus
Prokaryotic: cytoplasm |
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Term
| What is a major difference between eukaryotic genes and prokaryotic genes in regard to their structure |
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Definition
| Alternative splicing only occurs in eukaryotic genes because they contain introns when bacteria and archaea do not. Introns and exons are transcribed into RNA, but spliced out to make mRNA. |
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Term
| Where in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells does the process of translation occur? |
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Definition
Prokaryotes: Cytoplasm
Eukaryotes: Outside nuclear membrane |
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Term
| What are the 3 different types of RNA involved in protein production and what are their roles in this process? |
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Definition
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
mRNA -it’s synthesized on DNA and contains the information needed to build a protein. mRNA travels from the nucleus of a cell to ribosomes, the place where protein synthesis occurs, and is read by the ribosomes. The result is a protein
tRNA-translates the language of nucleotides into the language of amino acids. It carries amino acids and places them in a protein that is being produced according to the instructions of mRNA.
rRNA - contributes significantly to the structure of the ribosomes in a cell. mRNA, and tRNA work together the the ribosomes to synthesize proteins. |
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Term
| What is the genetic code? |
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Definition
| The genetic code are mRNA codon sequences |
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Term
| What is special about the following codons: AUG, UAA, UAG, UGA ? |
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Definition
AUG- Start
UAA/UAG/UGA-STOP |
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Term
| What are some of the causes of mutation? Are all mutations passed on to one’s children? |
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Definition
– DNA replication error
– Meiotic error
– Chromosomal rearrangement
– Mutagen –radiation, chemicals, sunlight
Somatic mutations will not be passed down to children when germline mutation is inheritable. |
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Term
| Are all mutations bad for the organism? |
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Definition
No, they can:
– Create new gene variants (alleles)
– Have led to the evolution of all organisms on the
planet
– Can result in antibiotic resistant bacteria |
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Term
| What are the four technologies we discussed that we can use to manipulate our genes and to what does each refer |
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Definition
Transgenic organisms - Harvesting
Gene therapy - Using a virus to deliver DNA to cells
Cloning - Goat
Stem cells - - Repair injured tissues that normally cannot |
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Term
| What type of an enzyme is used to cut DNA and why would the overhanging ends of the cut DNA be referred to as “sticky”? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some current uses for transgenic organisms? |
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Definition
| Crop plants, farm animals, and soils |
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Term
| What type of biological delivery system do scientists/doctors use to get the working gene into cells in gene therapy? Why is this not ideal system of delivery? What could go wrong? |
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Definition
Reprogramming isn’t an ideal system because One of the genes turned on to reprogram cells is a
cancer-causing gene. Therapy uses viruses to deliver DNA into our genome, but we cannot control where it might insert into another gene and cause problems. |
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Term
| What would reprogramming a cell allow it to do? |
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Definition
| Some genes will get turned off “permanently” making the cell become a specialized cell. |
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Term
| Generally describe the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning). What was this experiment trying to show? |
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Definition
| A cell was taken from a white sheep and was allowed to divide as many times while an egg was taken from a black sheep. Then, dna was taken out of the egg. The donor and egg cell was put together and had pulsed an electric current which caused these two cells to fuse and reprogram the cell. Then the embryo was implanted in a sheep and then gave birth to Dolly. |
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Term
| What are stem cells and what are the three different types |
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Definition
Stem cells help repairs nerves that cannot repair itself.
Embryonic stem cells
Adult stem cells
Induced pluripotent stem cells |
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Term
| Who are Shinya Yamanaka and John Gurdon? |
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Definition
Shinya Yamanaka first discovered how to take ordinary skin cells from an adult mouse, turn back their genetic clock, and transform them into the equivalent of embryonic stem cells.
John Gurdon: He is best known for his pioneering research in nuclear transplantation and cloning |
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Term
| What are some problems that scientists are currently having with iPS cells and gene therapy? |
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Definition
| Therapy uses viruses to deliver DNA into our genome, but we cannot control where it might insert into another gene and cause problems |
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Term
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Definition
| physical process of cell division that divides the cytoplasm of a parent cell into two daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
| the material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria (i.e., eukaryotes) are composed. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA |
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Term
|
Definition
| spindle fibers that form during mitosis. It is a spindle-shaped structure that develops outside the nucleus during mitosis. The fibers that constitute the mitotic spindle pull the chromatids apart toward opposite poles. |
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Term
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Definition
| The characteristic of having a chromosome complement that is not an exact multiple of the haploid number, with either fewer or more than the normal number of chromosomes in the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids. |
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Term
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Definition
| A site in a DNA molecule at which RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to initiate transcription of mRNA. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of asexual reproduction common among prokaryotes wherein a cell divides giving rise to two cells, each having the potential to grow to the size of the original cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unable to separate chromosome/sister chromotids |
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Term
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Definition
| treatment of a disease caused by malfunction of a gene |
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Term
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Definition
| Introns are removed and exons are joined together to form the final functional mRNA. |
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Term
| Spermatogenesis/OOgenesis |
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Definition
produces mature male gametes, commonly called sperm but specifically known as spermatozoa, which are able to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during conception to produce a single-celled individual known as a zygote.
creation of ovum |
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Term
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Definition
| Capable of affecting one or more cells |
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Term
| How many different amino acids are encoded by DNA? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Why would a cell want to control the transcription and translation of each individual protein in the cell? |
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Definition
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Term
| What part of the gene (DNA) sequence is responsible for controlling when transcription can occur? |
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Definition
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