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Definition
oxidation
-oxygen is a common receptor in biological reactions. |
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Definition
Reduced
-oxidation reduction reactions increase the energy of the reduced molecule |
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Definition
nearly all enzymes are proteins
-bind to substrates/roducts
-each enzyme has a unique bonding site
-only catalyzes its unique reaction
-they are reusable |
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Definition
-altering configuration of molecules
- changing the orientation of substrates |
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| Many enzymes may be needed in order to perform a single reaction |
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Definition
| These enzymes may be associated with each other in non-covalently bonded groups |
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Definition
-rate of reaction is limited by finding the right enzyme
-reduces the chances of othe spontaneous reactions
-all the reactions within the mec will have better control. |
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Definition
extremely rare in cells
-all increase rate of reactions
-show high substrate specificity |
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Term
| environmental factors that influence enzyme activity |
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Definition
temperature- high low optimal
PH- interactoins of oppositely charged ions hold enzymes together.
-does not like change to h+ concentrations |
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Term
| enzyme cofactors or coenzymes |
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Definition
| non protein or protein molecules that are needed by enzymes o function properly. |
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Term
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Definition
building blocks of RNA
-energy molecule of the cell via energy coupling |
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Term
| cells use energy in forming and breaking bonds |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
nearly all atp synthesis is driven by diffusion of ions across a selectively permeable membrane of mitochondian
-more common then exergonic or endogonic
formation. |
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Term
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Definition
make up molecules,which make up the substances of living things.
-carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and lipids are 4 kinds especially inportant to an organism structure and function. |
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Term
| the four most common elements found in living things |
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Definition
| carbon nitrogen oxygen hydrogen |
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Term
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Definition
| are made of two or more atoms |
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Term
| carbon atoms are central to all organisms |
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Definition
| because they are found in carbohydrates, nucleic acids,proteins, and lipids. |
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Definition
consist of carbon hydrogen and oxygen
CH20. |
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Term
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Definition
| energy packed in compounds. living creatures can break down carbs quickly making them a source of near immediate energy. |
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Definition
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| carbs com in the following forms |
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Definition
monosaccharides
disaccharides
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides |
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Term
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Definition
| simple sugars consisting of three to seven carbon atoms. most common monosaccharide is glucose. |
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Term
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Definition
two monosaccharide molecules joined together form a disaccharide.
-sucrose(table sugar)
-lactose(sugar found in milk) |
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Term
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Definition
| more than two but just a few monosaccharides joined together. important markers on the outside of the cell. determines blood type. |
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Term
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Definition
long chains of monosaccharide molecules linked together.
starch and glycogen serve as a means of storing carbohydrates in plants and animals respectively. |
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Term
| Monosaccharides join together in a process known as |
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Definition
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Definition
| involves two molecules bonding and losing a water molecule |
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Term
| nucleic acids are made up of |
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Definition
strands of nucleotides, each nucleotide has three components of its own:
-a nitrogen containing base (nitrogenous base)
-sugar with 5 carbon molecules
-a phosphate group |
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Term
| three major types of lip mlecules exist. |
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Definition
| phospholipd, steroids, triglycerides |
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Term
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Definition
these lipids made up of two fatty acids and a phospate group.d
- the are a part of the moembrane of cells.. |
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Term
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Definition
these lipids consisting of 4 carbon rings and a functional group decdides the hormone.
-cholesterol is a steriod molecule used to mske testoterone. |
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Term
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Definition
these fats and oils, made up of 3 fatty acid molecules and a glycerol molecule.
-are important for energy storage and insulation. |
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Term
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Definition
| contain single bonds between their carbon atoms |
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Term
| oils contain double bonds |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
dont have a "true nucleus" nor organelles
-bateria
-archae |
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Term
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Definition
| have nucleus in their cells that houses the genetic information. they also have organelles plants animals algae, and fungi. |
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Term
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Definition
molecules w/ carbon, hydrogen, oxygen in ratio 1:2:1
* empirical formula - (CH2O)n
* releases energy from C-H bonds when oxidized
* sugars - most important energy-storage carbohydrate |
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Term
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Definition
simplest of the carbohydrates
* can contain as few as 3 carbon, but most contain 6
* C6H12O6, or (CH2O)6
* usually forms rings in aqueous environments (but can form chains)
* glucose - most important energy-storing monosaccaride; has 7 C-H bonds for energy |
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Term
| disaccharide - "double sugar" |
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Definition
* 2 monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
* play roles in transporting sugars (so that it is less rapidly used for energy during transport)
* only special enzymes located at where glucose is to be used can break the bonds
* normal enzymes along the transport route can't break apart disaccharides
* sucrose - fructose + glucose; used by plants to transport glucose
* lactose - galactose + glucose
* maltose - glucose + glucose |
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Term
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Definition
macromolecules made of monosaccharides
* insoluble long polymers of monosaccharides formed by dehydration synthesis
* starch - used to store energy; consists of linked glucose molecules
* cellulose - used for structural material in plants; consists of linked glucose molecules
* amylose - simplest starch; all glucose connected in unbranched chains
* amylopectin - plant starch; branches into amylose segments
* glycogen - animal version of starch; has more branches than plant starch |
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Term
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Definition
alternative forms of glucose
* same empirical formula, but different atomic arrangement
* fructose - structural isomer of glucose; oxygen attached to internal carbon, not terminal; tastes sweeter than glucose
* galactose - stereoisomer of glucose; hydroxyl group oriented differently from glucose |
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Term
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Definition
* alpha form - where glucose bonds w/ the hydroxyl group below the plane of the ring
* beta form - where the glucose bonds w/ the hydroxyl group above the plane of the ring
* starch contains alpha-glucose chains
* cellulose - contains beta-glucose chains; cannot be broken down by starch-degrading enzymes; serves as structural material
* a few animals use bacteria/protists to break down cellulose
* chitin - structural material in arthropods/fungi; modified cellulose w/ nitrogen group added to glucose units |
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Term
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Definition
component of all biological molecules
* molecules w/ carbon can form straight chains, branches, rings |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen; energy-rich, makes good fuels (ex. propane gas, gasoline); nonpolar |
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Definition
| large, complex assemblies of molecules; separated into proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates |
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Definition
| long molecules built by linking together smaller chemical subunits |
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Definition
| takes a -OH group and a H from 2 molecules to create a covalent bond between them, forming water as a byproduct |
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Term
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Definition
| adding water to break a covalent bond in a macromolecule |
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Term
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Definition
* amino acid >> polypeptide >> intermediate filament
* nucleotide >> DNA strand >> chromosome
* fatty acid >> fat molecule >> adipose cells w/ fat droplets
* monosaccharide >> starch >> starch grains in chloroplasts |
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Term
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Definition
information storage devices of cells; 2 varieties
* can serve as templates to create exact copies of themselves
* deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - the hereditary material
* ribonucleic acid (RNA) - used to read DNA in order to create proteins; used as a blueprint to create amino acid sequences |
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Term
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Definition
* contains 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, organic base
* purine - large, double-ring molecules; adenine, guanine (both in RNA/DNA)
* pyrimidine - smaller, single-ring molecules; cytosine (in RNA/DNA), thymine (in DNA only), uracil (in RNA only)
dna =hydrogen bonds |
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Term
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Definition
* uses ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose (in DNA)
* has hydroxyl group where a hydrogen is in DNA >> stops double helix from forming
* uses uracil in place of thymine (has 1 more methyl group than uracil)
* usually single-stranded (differentiates itself from double-stranded DNA); serves as a transcript of the DNA
* evolved into DNA to protect the hereditary material from single-strand cleavage
* "central dogma" of molecular biology - flow of info from DNA to RNA to protein |
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Term
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Definition
adenosine triphosphate (contains adenine, a nucleotide)
* energy currency of the cell
* tinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) both carry electrons to make ATP |
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Term
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Definition
insoluble in water
* most familiar forms are fats/oils
* very high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds
* can't fold up like proteins
* spontaneously exposes polar parts and moves nonpolar parts within when placed in aqueous environment |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
* 10 reaction sequence converting glucose to 2 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate
* glucose + 2ADP + 2P + 2NAD+ >> 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O
* can be performed by all organisms (doesn't require oxygen or special organelles)
* metabolism evolves by adding reactions to each other, so glycolysis was never replaced |
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Term
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Definition
1st half of glycolysis; makes 2 3-carbon glyceraldehyde 3-phosphates from glucose
* 5 reactions |
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Term
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Definition
# step A - glucose priming
* 3 reactions changing glucose into a compound that can be readily cleaved into 3-carbon phosphorylated molecules
* 2 of the reactions require use of ATP |
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Term
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Definition
# step B - cleavage/rearrangement
* 2 reactions break up 6-carbon molecule into 2 3-carbon molecules
* 1st of 2 reactions forms G3P and another molecule that turns into G3P through the 2nd reaction |
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Term
| substrate-level phosphorylation |
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Definition
2nd half of glycolysis; makes pyruvate from G3P
* 5 reactions |
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Term
| 2nd half glycolosis step A |
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Definition
# step C - oxidation
* 2 electrons, 1 proton transferred from G3P to NAD+ to make NADH |
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Term
| 2nd half glycolosis step B |
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Definition
# step D - ATP generation
* 4 reactions convert G3P to pyruvate, generating 2 ATP
# in total, 4 ATP per glucose molecule produced
# 2 ATP used in beginning, so glycolysis has net ATP gain of 2
# harvests 24 kcal/mol of glucose, about 3.5% of chemical energy in glucose |
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Term
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Definition
only a small amount of NAD+ exists in cells
* necessary that the H on NADH be transferred somewhere else |
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Term
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Definition
| uses oxygen as electron acceptor (takes the H to become H2O); oxidizes pyruvate to acetyl-CoA |
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Term
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Definition
| uses organic molecule (like acetaldehyde) in place of oxygen; reduces all or part of pyruvate |
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Term
| Pyruvate Oxidation, Krebs Cycle (stage 2 cell respiration) |
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Definition
# occurs in only in mitochondria of eukaryotes
# 1st forms acetyl-CoA from pyruvate, then oxidizes acetyl-CoA in Krebs cycle
# single "decarboxylation" reaction that cleaves off one of the carbons on pyruvate (producing acetyl group and CO2)
# catalyzed in mitochondria by multienzyme complex
# pyruvate dehydrogenase - enzyme that removes CO2 from pyruvate; has 60 subunits
# pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA (coenzyme A) >> acetyle-CoA + NADH + CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
produced by a large number of metabolic processes
* key point for many catabolic processes in eukaryotes
* used for fatty acid synthesis instead of Krebs cycle when ATP levels are high |
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Term
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Definition
# 9 reactions; oxidation of acetyle-CoA
# takes place in mitochondria matrix
# combines acetyle-CoA (2-carbon molecule) w/ oxaloacetate (4-carbon molecule) to extract electrons and CO2 to power proton pumps for ATP |
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Term
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Definition
# step A - priming; 3 reactions rearrange chemical groups in acetyl-CoA to prepare the 6-carbon molecule for energy extraction
# step B - energy extraction; 4/6 reactions oxidize and remove electrons |
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Term
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Definition
condensation
* acetyle-CoA combines w/ oxaloacetate to form citrate
* irreversible reaction; inhibited when ATP concentration is high |
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Term
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Definition
isomerization
* repositions hydroxyl group by taking away H2O and adding it back to a different carbon
* forms isocitrate from citrate |
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Term
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Definition
1st oxidation
* oxidized to yield pair of electrons that make NADH from a NAD+
* decarboxylated to split off a CO2 to form a-ketoglutarate (5-carbon molecule) |
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Term
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Definition
2nd oxidation
* a-ketoglutarate decarboxylated into succinyl group, which bonds to coenzyme A to form succinyl-CoA
* CO2 removed
* oxidized to yield pair of electrons that make NADH from a NAD+ |
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Term
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Definition
substrate-level phosphorylation
* bond between succinyl group (4-carbon molecule) and CoA cleaved to phosphorylate GDP into GTP
* GTP readily converts into ATP
* succinyl-CoA becomes succinate |
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Term
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Definition
3rd oxidation
* succinate oxidized into fumarate
* energy produced not enough for NAD+, so FAD turned into FADH2 instead
* FAD part of inner mitochondrial membrane, can't diffuse within the organelle |
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Term
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Definition
oxaloacetate regeneration
* H2O added to fumarate, making malate
* malate oxidized to form oxaloacetate and 2 electrons to form NADH from NAD+ |
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Term
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Definition
process where diffusion force generates energy for ATP
* protons transported into the intermembrane space try to go back into matrix due to diffusion
* protons (ion) can only enter through ATP synthase, which uses proton gradient as an energy source
* reentry of protons powers the ATP synthase |
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Definition
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Definition
| found in plant fungi and some protist |
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Term
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Definition
# methanogens - produce methane, can't live in presence of oxygen (grows anaerobically); have DNA, lipid cell membrane, cell wall, metabolism based on ATP
# lack of peptidoglycan in their cell walls (found in other prokaryotes) |
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Term
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Definition
2nd major prokaryote group; larger group than archaebacteria
* have very strong cell walls
* account for the majority of prokaryotes living today
* some can use light as energy (photosynthetic)
* cyanobacteria - aka blue-green algae; played important role in increasing the amount of oxygen/ozone in the atmosphere |
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Term
6 kingoms
(big ass penis fuck pusssy aliright) |
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Definition
* Bacteria - prokaryotic organisms w/ peptidoglycan cell wall
* Archaebacteria - prokaryotes w/o peptidoglycan in cell wall
* Protista - eukaryotic, unicellular (except for certain types of algae); can be photosynthetic/heterotrophic
* Fungi - eukaryotic, multicellular (except for yeast), heterotrophic; have chitin cell walls
* Plantae - eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic
* Animalia - eukaryotic, multicellular, motile, heterotrophic |
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Term
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Definition
| found in plants, fungi, some protists |
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