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Definition
| a solution wuth a higher solute concentration; cell less salty than surrounding solution; water moves out of the cell |
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| a solution with a solute (ex. salt) concentration lower than that of the cell; cell is saltier than surrounding solution;water moves into cell |
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| the solute concentration of a cell and its isotonic enviornement are essentially equal and the cell gains water at the same rate that it loses it; the cell's volume remains constant |
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| plant cell in a hypotonic enviornment; normal for a plant cell; cell turns firm |
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| in isotonic solutions plant cells turn very limp |
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| in a hypertonic enviornment plant cells loses water and shrivel and plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall; can cause plant to wilt and die |
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| an animal cell placed in a hypotonic solution gains water and swells and may lyse because there is no cell wall. |
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| the contraction of an animal cell after exposure to a hypertonic solution; cell shrivels |
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Definition
| transfers energy from chemical bonds to endergonic (energy absorbing) reactions within the cell; multifunctional nucleotide; ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced by photophosphorylation and cellular respiration and used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes.One molecule of ATP contains three phosphate groups, and it is produced by ATP synthase from inorganic phosphate and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) |
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What happens to phosphate groups in conversion of ATP to ADP |
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Definition
| energy from released in exergonic reactions such as the break down og glucose during cellular respiration is used to regenerate ATP from ADP. In this endergonic (energy storing) process a phosphate is bonded to ADP. bonds between phosphate group's of ATP's tail can be broken by hydrolysis. energy is releases from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken creating ADP and energy |
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| the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower concentration |
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| any molecule moving down its concentration gradient until dynamic equallibrium is reached;the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
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| an increase/decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area |
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| diffusion across a membrane with no energry investment ex. osmosis and diffusion |
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| a mechanism for moving a solute agianst its concentration gradient; requires the expenditure of energy in the form of ATP; the mechanism alters the shape of the membrane protien through phosphorylation using ATP |
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| protiens that function as biological catalysts, increasing the rate of a reaction with being consumed by the reaction. each enzyme has a particular target molecule called the substrate. enzymes are very specific to their substrate |
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| composed of phospholipids and proteins; most functions of a cell membrane are carried out by the protiens. they are selectively permeable; nonpolar molecules (carbon and oxygen) cross easily, polar molecules (glucose and other sugars) do not cross easily. |
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| the surface of a cell membrane appears mosaic because of the protiens embedded in the phospholipids and fluid because the protiens can drift about in the phospholipids |
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| relaying message from a membrane receptor to a molecule that preforms a specific function within a cell; a receptor protein has a shape that fits a specfic messenger, such as a hormone. often the binding of the messenger to the receptor triggers a chain reaction involving other protiens which relay the messages to molecules that preform specific functions inside the cell. |
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| a cluster of several membrane proteins in the mitochondria that function in chemiosmosis wth adjacent electron transport chains, using the energy of a hydrogen ion concentrantion gradient to make ATP |
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| ATP synthase how does it work? |
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Definition
| ATP synthase act like mini turgbines. the hydrogen ions tend to be driven across the membrane by the energy of their concentration gradient, however the membrane is not permeable to hydrogen ions, and they can only cross through a channel in the ATP synthase.hydrogen ions rush from the intermembrane space into the rotor, causing it to spin,just as water turns turbines in a dam.the hydrogen ions make a nearly full rotation before going into the stator and being released into the mitochondrial matrix. the turning of the rotor causes the internal rod to rotate that activate catalytic sites in the synthase that attach phosphate groups to ADP molecules to generate ATP. |
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Term
| slow twitch muscle fibers |
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Definition
| more efficient at using oxygen to generate more ATP; allow continuous extended muscle contrations over a long time; they fire more slowly than fast twitch fibers and can go for a long time before the fatigue. |
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Term
| fast twitch muscle fibers |
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Definition
| use anaerobic metabolism to create fuel; much better at generating short bursts of strength or speed than slow twitch fibers; fatigue more quickly. fast twitch fibers generally produce the same amount of force per contration as slow muscles, but they get their name because they are able to fire more rapidly; not effective in longer-term train but useful in brief, high-intensity training like sprinting, body building or powerlifting |
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Definition
a process that releases energy from bonds in glucose and captures the energy as ATP; controlled break down of organic molecules
C6H12O6(glucose)+6O2à6CO2+6H2O+ATPs |
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| Overall purpose of cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| produce ATP (38 ATPs to be exact) |
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| occurs is there is not enough oxygen to undergo cellular respiration; plan B for our cells and used as a last resport becuase it is less effiecent at producing ATP (only produces 2 where as respiration produces 38); anaerobic energy-generating process; takes advatange of gycolysis, producing 2 ATP molecules and reducing NAD+ to NADH |
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Will a yeast use fermentation or respiration in the presence of oxygen? |
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| yeast are single-celled fungi that not only use respiration of energy but can ferment under anaerobic conditions; they convert pyruvate to CO2 and ethanol while oxidizing NADH back to NAD+. |
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Definition
2 ATP produced
1glucose +2NAD+ -> 2ethanol + 2CO2 + 2ATP + 2NADH
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Definition
in your muscle cells
1glucose +2NAD+ -> 2lactate + 2ATP + 2NADH |
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Definition
occurs int he cytoplasmic fluid of the cell, that is, outisde the organelles. breaks down glucose into two molecules of a 3 carbon compound called pyruvate; 2 net ATP produced
glucose --> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH |
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Term
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Definition
krebs cycle in animals;takes place in the mitochondria; completes the break down of glucose by decomposing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
1acetyl CoA + 10 Oxaloacatate --> 1 Oxaloacatate + 1ATP + 3NADH + 1FADH + 2CO2 |
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Term
| main function of gycolysis and the citric acid cylce? |
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Definition
| supple the 3rd stage of repiration with electrons |
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Term
| between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle |
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Definition
pyruvate is transported to the mitochondria where it is perpared for entry into the citric acid cycle.
pyruvate --> acetyl CoA(coenzyme A) + CO2 |
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Term
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
| where most of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is generated; involves the electron transport chain and chemiomosis. NADH and a related electron carrier FADH2 shuttle electrons to the electron transport chain embedded in the inner mitchondrion membrane; uses energy released by the downhill fall of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to O2 to phosphorylate ADP. as each electron is passes from protien complex to protein complex it loses energy; each electron steps down an energy stair with each passage until it reaches its final destination and is accpeted by oxygen; oxygen will simultaneously accept the electrons and the H+ ions to form water |
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Term
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Definition
| in the cristae of the mitchondria; the carriers accept and donate electrons; electrons are finally passed to O2 forming H2O; the electron transport chain generates no ATP; the chains function is to break the release of energy into smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts |
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Definition
electron carriers; donate electrons to the electron transport chain which powers ATP synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation); electrons in
NADH and FADH2 contain potential energy (this energy is used to pump H+ ions across the membrane) |
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Term
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Definition
| energy-coupling mechanism; the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work. EX. electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the mitchodrial matrix to the interspace membrane, H+ the moves back across the membrane passing through channels in the ATP synthase, ATP synthases uses exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP |
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Definition
movement of electrons from one molecule to another
[image] |
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Definition
| in a redox reaction the loss of electrons from one substance |
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Definition
| in a redox reaction the addition of electrons to one substance |
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| living things that are able to make their own food with out using organic molecules derived from any other living thing; producers of the biosphere |
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| autotrophs that use the energy of light to produce organic molecules; plants algea and protists and some prokaryotes |
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Definition
| synthesize all necessary organic compounds from heat methane and sulfur; live in hostile enviornment like deep sea vents |
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Definition
| major sites of photosynthesis in green plants; organelles consisting of photosynthetic pigments, enzymes, and other molecules grouped together; the ability to synthesize is directly related to the structure of chloroplasts |
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Definition
| an important light absorbing pigment in chloroplast; responsible for the green color of plants; energy provided by light is primarily absorbed by chlorophylls and carotenoids; |
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Term
Best color of light for photosynthesis |
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Definition
chlorophylls absorb blue and red light and carotenoids absorb blue-green light; green and yellow are not effectively absorbed by photosynthetic pigments in plants, therefore the light of these colors is either reflected by leaves or passes through the leaves; this is why plants are green.
the best light is red or blue |
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Term
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Definition
Transformation of light energy to chemical energy stored in the bonds of sugar they make from carbon dioxide and water; produces oxygen.
Electrons gain energy by being boosted up an energy hill; light energy captured by chlorophyll molecules provides the boost of energy for the electrons
Like cellular respirartion photosynthesis is a redox reaction; water molecules are split apart by oxidation which means they lose electrons along with hydrogen ions; then CO2 is reduced to sugar as electrons and hyrdrogen ions are added to it
6CO2 + 6H2O --(light energy)--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
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Definition
| tiny pores in the leaf that allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to exit |
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Definition
Light energy is converted in the thylakoid membranes to chemical energy and O2; water is split to provide the O2 and electrons
Chemiosmosis power ATP synthesis in the light reactions.
2 connected photosystems;H+ ions reduce NADP+ TO NADPH, which is an electron carrier similiar to NADH; NADPH is temorarily stored the shuttled into the Calvin cycle where it is used to make sugar; the light reactions generate ATP
NADP++ H2O + ADP+P -(light)--> O2 + ATP +NADPH |
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Term
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Definition
2 within the light reaction connected by an electron transport chain; generates ATP and NADPH
Steps:
1. a photon of light is absorb by chlorophyll
2.energy from light causes electron to jump to a higher energy state
3. electron transport chain produces H+ gradient and ATP
4. light absorbed by another chlorophyll
5. energy from light causes electron to jump to a higher energy state
6. electron is donated to NADP+ |
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Term
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Definition
kreb cycle in plants;converts CO2 into sugars; makes sugar within a chloroplast; using CO2, and the ATP and NADPH generated in the light reactions, an energy rich 3 carbon sugar called gyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) is produced.
CO2 + ATP + NADPH --> Glucose |
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Term
| reactive oxygen species (ROS) |
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Definition
| ions or molecules that are highly reactive do to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons; form as a natural byproduct of cellular respiration; can damage cells |
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Definition
| help fight ROS; lower the risk of heart disease and neuological disease; protect agianst cancers; one class of antioxidants are carotenoids found in fruits and veggies |
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Definition
an accident of meiosis in which a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to seperate at anaphase.
-if it occurs in during meiosis I then both members of a homologous pair go to one pole
-if it occurs in during meiosis II then both sister chromatids go to one pole
Fertalization after nondisjunction yeilds zygotes with altered #s of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| ordered sequence of events for cell division; consist of interphase and mitotic phase |
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Definition
duplication of cell contents including DNA; mostly time for growth and DNA synthesis
1. G1- growth, increase in cytoplasm
2. S- DNA synthesis, duplication of chromosomes
3. G2- growth, prep for cell division
the end of interphase there are 42 chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
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Term
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Definition
| cell division; mitosis- division of the nucleus; cytokinesis- division of cytoplasm |
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Definition
| - division of a cell to produce 2 identical cells; used mainly for growth and replacement |
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Definition
| division of cells to produce 4 daughter cells (gametes) with a single set of chromosomes |
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Definition
| offspring are identical to the original cell/organism;involves inheritance of all genes from one parent |
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Definition
| offspring are similar to parents, but show variations in traits; involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from 2 parents |
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Definition
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Definition
| a thread-like, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and most visible during mitosis and meiosis; main gene carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell; consists of DNA and protien; every eukaryotic species has a characterist # of chromosomes in each nucleus; 23 chromosomes at the end of interphase |
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Definition
| nonreproductive; have pairs of homologous chromosomes; they are diploid (46 in humans) |
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Definition
| reproductive cells (sperm and egg); have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells; they are haploids (23 in humans) |
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Definition
| chromosomes as a mass of thin long fibers; combo of DNA and protien; as the cell prepares to divide its chromatin coils up forming compact, distinct chromosomes; 46 at the end of interphase |
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Definition
| a narrow "waist" where 2 chromatids are tightly joined |
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Definition
in the nucleus; chromosomes coil and become compact;
the end of prophase there are 46 chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
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Definition
chromosomes align at the cell equator; mitotic spindle is fully formed with poles at the opposite ends of the cell;
the end of metaphase there are 46 chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
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Term
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Definition
| sister chromatid seperate at the centromeres; daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell; the end of anaphase there are 92 chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
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Term
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Definition
the cell continues to elongate; the nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole, establishing daughter nuclei;chromtin uncoils;
the end of telophase there are 92 chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
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Definition
| cytoplasm is divided into seperate cells |
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Definition
| chromosomes matched in length, centromere position, and gene locations; seperation during meiosis can lead to genetic differences between gametes; different versions of a gene at the same locus (position of a gene), one version inherited from the maternal parent and the other from the paternal parent; do not end up in the same cell at the end of meiosis so, gametes will receive either the maternal or paternal version of the gene |
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Term
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Definition
| diploid chromosome # one set from each parent |
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Definition
| chromosomes become compact; homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by synapsis;each pair w/ 4 chromatids is called a tetrad; nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material by crossing over |
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Term
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Definition
causes genetic recombination (production of new combos of genes);involves exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
- nonsister chromatids join at the chiasma (the site of attachment and crossing over)
-corresponding amounts of genetic material are exchanged between maternal and paternal chromatids |
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Definition
| terads align at the cell equator |
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Term
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Definition
| homologous pairs seperate and move towards opposite poles of the cell |
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Definition
| duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles; a nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes in some species; each nucleus has the hapoid # of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication;Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II
Prophase II-Chromosomes coil and become compact
Metaphase II-Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator
Anaphase II-Sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move toward opposite poles
Telophase II -Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell;A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes; With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced
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Term
| which characteristics are similar for mitosis and meiosis? |
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Definition
| one duplication of chromosomes |
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Term
| which characteristics are unique to meiosis? |
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Definition
2 divisions of chromosomes(meiosis I and meiosis II
Occurs to create haploid gametes);Pairing of homologous chromosomes for crossing over and across the metaphase plate in metaphase I; Exchanging of genetic material by crossing over |
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Definition
| escape controls of the cell cycle; cancer cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of growth factors; they spread to other tissues through the circulatory system; growth is not inhibited by other cells and tumors form |
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Term
| density dependent inhibition |
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Definition
| the arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a lab dish touch one another |
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Definition
| causes down syndrome;involves inheritance of 3 copies of chromosome 21; most common humna chromosome abnormality;chromosome 21 is one of the smallest human chromosomes, this provides an explanation as to why this condition is not fatal while trisomy involving another larger autosome that controls many more genes would most likely be fatal |
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Term
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Definition
-caused by an imbalance in chromosome number; characterized by characteristic facial features, susceptibility to disease, shortened life span (40-50 years), mental retardation, variation in characteristics.
-The probability of concieving a baby with down syndrome increases with the age of the mother; age 20-24 probability is 1/1562, 35-39 probability is 1/214, older than 45 the probability is 1/19 |
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Term
| tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) |
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Definition
| an enzyme, that catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, the major enzyme responsible for clot breakdown.Because it works on the clotting system, tPA is used in clinical medicine to treat only embolic or thrombolytic stroke. Use is not recommended in hemorrhagic stroke and head trauma. |
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