-a long chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose

-material of cell walls

-forms the exoskeloton of anthropods

-used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread

-currently harvested largely from shrimp cells

~1.5 X 10^6 species

-belongs to the unikont supergroup

-all unikonts are heterotrophic

-never acquired photosynthesis/chloroplasts

-multi or unicellular-unicelluar often called yeast-unicellular fungi w/out flagella

-exoenzymes help fungi take up amino acids, nutrients, etc.

-digestive enzymes are secreted into a substrate, then smaller, easily assimilated molecules are absorbed through the cell membrane

-most common form of growth in fungi

-allows for communication

-creates network to communcate & distribute materials

-hyphae->mycelium

-a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus

-in most fungi, hyphae the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium

-yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hypha 

-unicellular fungi w/out flagella

-unicellular fungi that do not grow as hypha 

-dominant in fungi

-the vegetative part of fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae

-it is through the mycelium that a fungus absorbs nutrients from its environment

-asexual, non-motile spores of a fungus

-are named after the greek word for dust, konia

-also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through mitosis

-"hat thrower"

-conidia

-crystal like body

-top is packet of spores

-grows on feces of herbivore

-cap is "thrown" off to get to plants in spore dispersal

Fruiting Bodies

(Mushrooms)

-some fungi make them but not all

-multicellular fruiting bodies are made of hyphae

-the humungous fungus

-largest recorded 965 Ha, or 1880 football fields

-believed to be clonal

-growth outward in a circle of a fungi

-fruiting bodies grow in a ring

-decomposers

-an organism that gets its energy from non-living organic matter

-many fungi are saprobes

-some saprotroph can edcay lignin

-decomposers

-an animal that feeds on dead organisms and breaks them down into smaller molecules

-ex. earthworms & woodlice

-chestnut blight

-plant pathogen

-american elm

-plant pathogen

-barberry

-wheat rust

-plant pathogen

-yeast infections

-animal pathogen

-ringworm

-animal pathogen

-lung pathogen

-animal pathogen

-lung pathogen

-animal pathogen

-hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey

-traps nematode

-corticeps: grows out of insect larva/insect

Mycoparasites

-symbiotic relationships

-ex. lichens b/w fungus and algae-green and cyanobacteria

-reproduction

-the fruiting body (sporocap) of an ascomycete fungus

-consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae

-instant lichens immediately start growing in symbiosis

-commom reproductive structures of lichens

-primary colonizers

-similar to bryophytes

-cut pieces of vegetation to feed fungus, which provides nutrition for ants

-ants can't eat the leaves themselves

-form of agricultural symbiosis

Food: -mushrooms

-fermented food/drinks/leavened bread

Antibiotics: -secondary metabolites

-Alexander Fleming-biologist who found penicilin in 1928-peniclin comes from fungi and inhibits growth of bacteria-zone of inhibited growth

Dyes: -phalloidin

Enzymes: -cellulases-a class of enzymes produced mainly by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans

-lignin degrading enzymes

Drugs: -psilocybe azurescens-magic mushrooms

Model Systems

-1800 sp.

-supertrophs

-pathogens-plants and animals

-have flagella

-ex. "Frog Chytrid" Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

-infects the skin of frogs-contributor to world wide amphibian decline

~1000 sp.

-supertrophs

-pathogens

-filamentous, no fruting bodies

-sexual/asexual

-lack flagella

-160 sp.-a huge underestimation

-small but very important group

-asexual???

-no fruiting bodies

-arbuscular mycorrhizae

-20-80% of plants

clade that includes:

Ascomycetes-65 K sp.

Basidiomycetes-30 K sp.

a microscope, spore-producing structure found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi

Dikarya Life Cycle

(2 haploid nuclei)

Basidio 1N spore-->1N primary mycelium+1N-->

2N Dikarya(dominant part of life cycle)-->

fruiting body-->Basiduium 2N spore-immediately undergo meiosis & produce set of spores that are haploid

-eukaryotic

-heterotrophic ingestion

-multicellular

-no cell walls-extracellular matrix

-tissues

-muscles

-nerves

-held together by junctions and desosomes

-tight junctions

-gap junctions

-desosomes

-integrins

-intermediate filaments

-collagen

-protoglycans

-a group of natrually occuring proteins

-it is found exclusively in animals, especially in the flesh and connective tissues of mammals

-glycoproteins that are heavily glycosylated

-a major component of the animal extracellular matrix, the "filler" substance existing between cells in an organism

-receptors that mediate attachment b/w a cell and the tissues surrounding it, which may be other cells or the extracellular matrix

-also play a role in cell signalling and thereby regulate cellular shape, motility, and the cell cycle

-the closely associated areas of two cells whose membranes join together forming a virtually impermeable barrier to fluid

-a type of junctional complex present only in vertebrates

-also hold cells together

-specialized intercelluar connections between a multitude of animal cell-types

-directly connects the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules ions to pass freely b/w cells

-a cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion

-a type of junctional complex

-are spot-like adhesions randomly arranged on the lateral sides of plasma membranes

larval stage-->adult stage

-some insects, amphibians, mollusks, crustaceans

-a group of related genes that determine the basic structure and orientation of an organism

-studied by evo devo(evolution of development)

-homeotic genes

-bind to DNA and regulate expression

Radial

-sessile-attached

planktonic/slow swimming

Bilateral

-anterior & posterior

-cephalization(evolution of the head)

Sponges

-no symmetry

-tissue layer

-only endo & ectodermis

-radially symmetrical

-tissue layer

-mesoderm

-bilateral symmetry

Coelomates

(Body Cavity)

-animals with a coeloms, which is a fluid-filled cavity formed within the mesoderm

-coeloms were developed in triploblasts but were subsequently lost in several lineages, correlated w/ a reduction in body size

-only ever present in triploblastic animals

-most bilateral animals, including all the vertebrates, are coelomates

Pseudocoelomates

(Body Cavity)

Acoelomates

(Body Cavity)

-have no body cavity at all

-organs have direct contact epithelium

-semi-solid mesodermal tissues b/w the gut and body wall hold their organs in place

-ex. flatworms

-"mouth first"

-blastospore becomes mouth

-ex. snails, mollusks

-"mouth second"

-blastospore becomes anus

-ex. starfish, urchins, whales

-est. at 1 billion years ago

-animals: 675-890 thousand years ago

-embyos: 570 million years ago

-ediacaran fossils: 565-550 million years ago

tree that is drawn w/ branches proportional to genetic distance

(#s of substitutions)

-an extracellular matrix glycoprotein that binds to integrins

-also binds to collagen, fibrin and other extracellular matrix components

535-525 mya

~1/2 extant "phyla" suddenly appeared

aquatic

Theories

-predator-prey realtionship

-increased [O2]

-origin of hox genes

Porifea

(Sponges)

~5500 sp.

-lack symmetry

-lack true tissues

-have cells called choanocytes, which are used to feed

-unicellular

-sister species of animals

-includes animals w/ true tissues

-a clade comprising all major animal groups except sponges, placozoa, and several other little known animals

-the radially symmetric animals of the Eumetazoa

-form a grade

-all animals that have bilateral symmetry

-monophyletic

-diploblastic

-jellies, anemones, corals

polyp-anemone

medusa-jelly

-have cnidocytes, which are feeding cells

-"comb jellies"

-their most distinctive feature is the "combs," groups of cilia that they use for swimming

-a major grouping of protostome animals

-bilateria

-have larval feeding stage w/ lophophore, which is a cilliated crest 

-also have trochophore stage

-include: Platyhelminthes

  Annelids

 Molluscs

-ecdysis "molting"

-a group of protostome animals including Arthropoda, Nematoda, Onychophorans and several smaller phyla

-can be considered as including all animals that shed their exoskeleton, or ecdysis

-blastospore becomes the anus, while in protostomes it becomes the mouth

-includes:

Echinodermata

~7000 sp.

-sea stars, sea cucumbers

Chordates

-vertebrates

Platyhelminthes

(Lophotrochozoa)

-flatworms, trematodes, tapeworms

-20,000 sp.

-acoelomates

-gas exchange across body

-free-living

-budding/regeneration

-ex cestodes-tapeworms

-parasitic flatworms

-snail host--(larva)-->human host

~16,500 sp.

-"little ring"

-coelomates-hydrostatic skeleton

-peristaltic movement

longitudal muscle relaxed(extended) + circular muscle contracted-->

circular muscle relaxed + longitudal muscle contracted

-oligochaetes-few bristles

-polychaetes-many bristles

-leeches-antiocoagulants-how they suck blood

-93,000 sp.

-gastropods-snails, slugs

-herbivores

-predatory

-proto-farming-when it leaves feces on a plant and fungi grows, which then becomes food for it

-bi-valves-how slugs & snails move

foot-->anchor

~25,000 sp.

-"round worms"

-ex. trichella-causes trichinosis

-ex. heartworm

-ex. elephantiasis

ex. C elegans

~110 sp.

-"velvet worms"

-present in cambrian explosion

-ex. hallucigenia

-sister group of animals

-almost 3/4 of animals are arthropods

-exoskeleton

-segmented bodies

-jointed legs

Includes:

Cheliceriforms

-pincer-like mouth parts

Myriapods

-"many footed"

-centipedes, millipedes

Hexapods

-insects & its relatives

-some have incomplete metamorphosis

-migration

-some fly

Crustaceans

-crabs, shrimps, barnacles

-notochord

-dorsal, hollow nerve board

-pharygeal slits

-muscular tail

Includes:

Lancelets

-notochord

-cephalochordats

Craniates

-head

-myxini-hagfishes-cartillaginous skull

-neural crest

-jawless fish

-characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth

-cartillaginous vertebral column

-pteromzentida

-jaws

-mineralized skeletons

-chondrichthyes-sharks, rays

-"bony fishes"

-lungs or lung derivatives

-ray-finned fishes

-Actinoptergy-swim bladder

Includes:

Coelacanths

-only a couple of species

-bony fish

Lung-fishes

-lungs+gills

-about 5 species

-bony fish

-4 feet

Includes:

Amphibians

-"both ways"-complex development that includes water and land

-salamanders, frogs, caecilians-legless amphibian

~6000 species

-paedomorphosis-axolotl

-generally restricted to damp places

-gas exchange across skin

-tetrapods that have amniotic egg, which involves embryo and series of membranes

-have: shell, amnion, allantois, chorian, yolk sac

-can reproduce fully on land

-includes reptiles, birds, mammals

-oviparous (eggs) or vivaparous (live birth)

-amniotes

-includes birds

-scales made of keratin

-eggs-calcerous or leathery

-vivaporous (placenta) or oviporous

-ectothermic or endothermic (birds)

Include:

Lepidsaurs

-tutaras-200 myo-now only 2 sp. in NZ

-squamates-7900 sp.

-snakes & lizards

Archosaurs

-dinosaurs

-crodilians-crocodiles, alligators ~23 sp.

Birds

-archosaurs

~10,000 sp.

-adapted for fligght-modified limbs, feathers, hollow bones, no urinary bladder, females single overy, no teeth

-endothermic

-archaeoptenx-first bird fossil-150 myo

-mammary glands

-hair

-long periods of parental care

-endothermic

-large brains relative to body size

Include:

Motremes

-only egg-laying mammals

-spiny anteaters

~5 sp.

-mammary glands but lack nipples

Marsupials

-mostly in Australia & south Asia

~325 sp.

-young born at early stage (pouches)

Eutherians

~5000 sp.

-placental mammals

-longer stage in uterus

-includes 

Primates

~60 myo

-hominius ~ 7 myo

interactions of organisms w/ each other and the environment-biotic-living

-abiotic-non-living

 -temp, moistures, "climate"

Organismal-->

Population-->

Community-->

Ecosystem-->

Landscape-->

Global

-"food chain"

Primary producers(carbon fixation)-->

Primary consumers-->

Secondary consumers-->

Tertiary consumers-->

Quaternary consumers

Primary Productivity

-a rate

-ex. gm/m2/yr or J/m2/yr

~5-20%

-"turnover rate"

Sunlight(1,000,000 J)-->

Primary producers(10,000 J)-->

Primary consumers(1,000 J)-->

Secondary consumers(100 J)-->

Tertiary consumers(10 J)

-biomass @ any instant

-increase in concentration of certain compounds

-from low-->high in trophic levels

-ex. DDT, PCB's

-absorbed by primary consumers

-not metabolized

-not excreted

-a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases and re-radiated in all directions

-since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere

-as a result, the temperature there is higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism

-resources that limit a species's realized niche

-ex. oxygen, water, food, habitat

-species that evolve a specialized characteristic that helps them survive, eat etc.

-when 2 competitive species live in same environment

-ex. birds on Galapagos-beak depth

Physical- ex. spines, thorns

Cryptic Coloration- ex. frogs that look like bark

Biochemical Defenses- ex. poison ivy

Aposmatic Coloration- ex. brightly colored frog shos predators it is poisonous

Batesian-non-toxic/dangerous aninal evolves to look very similar to a dangerous animal

-ex. hawkmoth larva looks like green parrot snake

Mullerian-two unpalatable species mimic each other 

-ex. two types of bees

-viceroy + monarch butterflies